Category Archives: reformation

TEAM 5, QUESTION 2 (4/14 )

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The Council of Trent seems to justify its own authority by saying that it is “lawfully assembled in the Holy Spirit, the same legates of the apostolic see presiding, adhering to the teaching of the Holy Scriptures, to the apostolic traditions, and to the unanimous teaching of other councils and of the Fathers” (Voorst 359). The Council of Trent adds canons on the Holy sacraments of the church in order to “destroy the errors and extirpate the heresies that in our stormy times are directed against the most holy sacraments, some of which are a revival of heresies long ago condemned by our Fathers, while other are of recent origin, all of which are exceedingly detrimental to the purity of the Catholic Church and the salvation of souls” (Voorst 358).

The council understands the origins of the sacraments (the seven, baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order and matrimony) all coming from Jesus Christ. The significance of these holy sacraments is an addition for salvation, meaning the sacraments are another part to the full aspect of salvation. So for those men who have obtained from God through faith, and faith alone, the grace of justification, they must also need the sacraments of the new law for salvation. Only those who believe the sacraments of the new law grace is conferred through Christ’s work and those who have a certain spiritual and indelible mark that cannot be repeated imprinted on the soul a character through baptism, confirmation and order. Ex opera operato is the sacraments deriving from Christ’s work and conferring power inherent in the sacrament itself while ex opera operantis is the value and role of the recipient’s or minister’s moral condition in causing or receiving sacramental grace. Not all Christians have the power to administer the Word and all the sacraments. A minister, who is in mortal sin, even if he observes all the essentials that pertain to the conferring of a sacrament, affects his sacrament. The validity of the council comes when it says that the received and approved rites of the Catholic Church accustomed to be used in the administration of the sacraments may not be omitted by ministers without sin and at their pleasure. Canon 1 brings on more sacraments than the Protestant Church because it says there are seven sacraments and just seven, when the Protestant Church observes two of those seven and not all. The two that are considered sacraments in the Protestant church are communion (The Eucharist) and baptism. Canon 4 is a direct refutation of the Protestant ideals because the Protestant Church believes in salvation and justification through faith and faith alone, not with a combination of sacraments. Also, Canon 8 is a refutation of Protestant church ideals because it says that grace is achieved through works. It also says in Canon 10 and 12 (which is also a refutation of the Protestant Church) that not any Christian can administer sacraments and that priests who marry cannot confer sacraments.

So in short, the Index of Prohibited Books says that the church claims that any book that goes against or even appears to challenge the doctrines of the Catholic Church is an inauthentic book. The books are identified and classified by (local) bishops, inquisitors, and theologians who are approved by the local bishop. The church identifies books from heresiarchs such as Calvin, Luther, Zwingli, etc. and automatically forbidding them, labelling them as inauthentic. Books of other heretics, which deal with religion are also absolutely condemned and labelled inauthentic. Those books that do not deal with any religion and by bishops and inquisitors been examined by Catholic theologians and approved by them are allowed. Catholic books written by those who later fell into heresy and those who fell but returned back to the Catholic Church “may be allowed if they are approved by the theological faculty of a Catholic university or by the general inquisition” (Schroeder 365). The translations of writers are permitted if they provide nothing contrary to sound doctrine. Books such as biblical translations and manuals can be used as support material to the Vulgate as long as they are allowed by the Catholic Church. The biblical translations of the Old Testament can be allowed to learned and pious men only, provided that they are only used as elucidations for the official Bible of the Catholic Church (Vulgate). The biblical translations of the New Testament “made by authors of the first class of this list shall be permitted to no one, since great danger and little usefulness usually results to readers from their perusal” (Schroeder 365). But if with particular translations with the Vulgate edition are circulated, these may also, after the suspected passages have been taken out by the theological faculty of a Catholic university or by the general inquisition, may be permitted to those who the translation is permitted for. The Index of Prohibited Books was released at a time when the printing press was still relatively new. This meant that information could be spread much easier and faster than the time before the printing press. By having almost every book published by or at least approved (or banned) by the Catholic Church meant that there was a complete control on what would be circulated and be seen in society, specifically the Christian community. The Catholic Church would even keep regulations and restrictions on the ideas that were not directly religious in foundation. The level of details within the document showed the unsteady time the Catholic Church was in and how they went to extreme measures to keep control over the spread of ideas in Christian society.

Group 4, Question 2 (4/14 )

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The Canons on the Sacraments in General discusses the importance of the 7 Catholic Sacraments in direct response to the circulating Protestant ideas about the invalidity of the sacraments. The council claims it’s authority on the matter essentially by listing all the names of the men who are supporting the document; such names including the Pope, cardinals, and several other important figures in the Catholic church at the time, and then by claiming that they have power through the Holy Spirit. The council considers the sacraments the “path of all true justice” and claims that they are essential to achieving salvation.

The council claims that all 7 Catholic Sacraments were instituted by Jesus Christ, and that God imparts grace through the sacraments upon any individual who takes them correctly. They also clarify that only ministers who have power imparted by God can confer sacraments, in direct conflict to the Protestant belief that one could achieve salvation solely through their own faith. Nearly all of the listed canons seem to be in almost direct conflict with the new Protestant teachings; the claim that sacraments are necessary for salvation (4), that grace is achieved through works (8), that not any Christian can administer sacraments (10), and that priests who marry cannot confer sacraments (12). These are only the more blatant refutals of Protestant ideals, but virtually every canon listed attacks and discredits Protestant ideas in some way.

In the Index of Prohibited Books the church essentially claims that any book which challenges or goes against the doctrines of the Catholic church is an inauthentic book. Books are classified by local bishops, inquisitors, and theologians approved by the local bishop. On a larger scale and in Rome books are classified by certain appointed church officials that are called out in the document. Books such as biblical translations and manuals can be used as supplemental material to the Vulgate so long as they are approved by the church. The Index of Prohibited Books was released at a time when printing presses were still relatively new and therefor knowledge could be spread much easier and faster than ever before. By having virtually every book published be either approved or banned by the church they had very tight control over what ideas could circulate in Christian society, even ideas that were not directly religious in nature. The level of detail of the document is to be expected in such an unsteady time as the church struggles to gain control over the spread of ideas in Christian society.

Team 2, Question 1

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Theological reformation was spreading like a plague from the spark that Luther had casted onto the Catholic church. To Luther’s surprise this spark lite the fire of reformation that would spread and even go against Luther as we find with Müntzer and the reformers at Münster. Through the examination of the “Vindication and Refutation”, Müntzer’s Sermon, the Rothmann’s Restitution, and the story of Jan van Leiden’s fate we will dig deeper into this great theological reform of this period in time.

Through the examination of the “Vindication and Refutation” we will see deeper into Müntzer hatred toward Luther and the reason why. Müntzer once considered himself a member of Luther’s had developed this hatred, but because of Luther’s badmouthing about Müntzer to the point where his own peers depicted him as Satan or some kind of devil all because he himself had reformed off of Luther’s own ideas. Müntzer has a big issue with the socio-economic state of society. The idea of theft is viewed by Müntzer as a very common occurrence. This wrongdoing of taking advantage of others Müntzer believed will lead to punishment because these kind of acts are wrong and have been stated to be wrong by God.

The Müntzer Sermon really gives us an idea of what he was truly about. He felt that he was a messenger for God, a prophet. This sermon was rather a hearing granted to Müntzer by a group of nobles and princes. Müntzer turned it into a sermon and is probably why today it is something we study. He portrays himself as the prophet with a very important message from God. That message is that they these nobles must be God’s tools. If they are to be His tools they must live a life with God and restrain from the unnecessary things in life. As long as they life their life accordingly and use the sword of God to defend him from the godless they will be protected. He backs these statements up with references to biblical passages to reinforce the message he is giving him because he wants them to know that the sword is not what they should be thankful for but the power of God.

Through the development of the Anabaptist and their strong beliefs in Müntzer’s ideas came what would become known as the “New Jerusalem” in Münster. The creation of the “New Jerusalem” and its first assigned “New King David”, Jan Mathijs  who was killed soon after they caught the attention of many, especially those of the Catholic Church and protestants. This community had some very extremist qualities and were very devoted to the old testament. Jan Van Leiden would take the seat that Mathij once held but in 1535 the strong Catholic and protestant armies came in and took back the city of Münster killing the majority of the peasant Anabaptists.

Team 4, Question 2

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It is unclear as to what caused John Calvin’s split from the Catholic Church. While he originally wished to study theology, a falling out between his father and the bishop who held jurisdiction over Calvin’s hometown of Noyon caused him to pursue a path in law. After his father’s death, Calvin returned to Paris to finish his degree in theology. Calvin wrote little about the state of his soul, instead possibly drawing on the influence of his fellow humanists. These peers seem to have helped him come to the decision to withdraw from the Catholic faith and pursue Protestantism. John Calvin’s studies of the Bible lead him to  envision a society governed by Bible and its teachings, not the interpretations of Rome and the Catholic Church. This strict and dogmatic faith was incorporated into a document written by Calvin called The Geneva Ordinances.

Ordinances envisioned a society governed only by the Bible, observing that Catholic Church tradition has strayed from the Word and there is no authoritative interpretation of the Bible by a human. According to Calvin, only God has the authority to interpret scripture. It also taught that God predestined whom he wanted to predestine, without consideration of the predestined people’s merits. Calvin interpreted the Bible literally, and his followers did so as well.

Calvin sought to integrate theological ideals through punishment. According to Ordinances, they ranged from a fine of five to ten sous to an hour in the pillory for blasphemy to three days imprisonment for unworthy songs. Games played for money could earn a fine of five sous to the loss of money won, while drunkenness earned a fine of three to ten sous and imprisonment. The consistory, the council of community leaders, as well as the secular lords who governed local areas carried out these punishments. These guidelines reflect the concepts of the Reformation and the resistance of the excessive lavishness of the Catholic Church. The regulations of this strict society included imprisonment, fines paid for misbehavior and given to the poor and the authorities, and admonishment by the consistory, who were elected by the Church.

Calvin believed these regulations served as an improvement over the Catholic-led society because they offered a relationship with God that was unaffected by material possession. Calvin’s wish to create a Christian community manifested in a society that was not only ruled by the government, but by the Church as well.

Team 1: Duncan, question 1

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The call of protest issued by Martin Luther gave rise to many other groups who wanted to reform from the current state of the church. The Anabaptist movement took off first as a group lead by scholars and pacifists, but after facing persecution the movement quickly became one of radical expression through rebellion and hopes set in violent revolution. In hopes of a New Jerusalem Anabaptists looked to Strasbourg to become the city where the kingdom of God could be developed. But the government of Strasbourg pushed back and repressed the large numbers of Anabaptists coming to the city. Then the suggestion arises that the New Jerusalem actually be established in Munster, which already had a large Protestant and Catholic presence, so Anabaptists did not experience push back in Munster. The lack of persecution in Munster ment that a large population of Anabaptists went there and also presumably meant that the Kingdom would come and Munster would be the New Jerusalem.

Before the Anabaptist move to Munster occurred, past catholic priest Thomas Muntzer joined Luther’s movement in 1518. By 1522 Muntzer had turned, becoming Luther’s opponent in the reforming world. Muntzer pushed for radical social transformation by violent means and his ideology progressively headed towards an apocalyptic viewpoint. Muntzer raises high disagreement with the socio-economic state of current affairs. Muntzer see’s the world as one where theft is a daily occurrence, but not just simply by the poor but heavily by the rich. The greed driven upper class holds out from those in need and to Muntzer this is a great injustice to all man. Muntzer continually references biblical prophets to not only strengthen his argument, mainly to Luther for authority, but also to warn of the punishment he understood would be rightfully placed on those who have done wrong in the eyes of God. The exploitation of the people would not go unnoticed by the ultimate judge and Muntzer was making a point about it.

On July 13, 1524, Thomas Muntzer gave a sermon to a group of princes and nobles where he called upon them to be God’s instrument in the revolution. Muntzer presents himself as the next Daniel, another prophet of prophets here to bring together the princes of peace. With this self diagnostic and usage of scripture Muntzer presents a seemingly consistent notion that he is presenting the will of God to man.

The growth of the Anabaptists through the push from Muntzer eventually lead to the establishing control of Munster by the Anabaptists. The New Jerusalem had been established in Munster and Jan Mathijs served as the New King David. It was understood to the Anabaptists that the Kingdom would come to this New Jerusalem because of a list of scriptural reflections they had achieved and now perceived to be fulfillments of prophecies. The community was very pious in regards to the old testament and the mosaic covenant. There was also no un-believers in the community. Jan Mathij was only king for six weeks before he was killed. Jan Van Leiden assumed the throne of kingship. In the summer of 1535 protestant and catholic forces retook the city of Munster, killing the majority of the inhabitants and beheading Jan Van Leiden.

Team 5, Question 2

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In the Geneva Ordinances (1547), John Calvin laid out a structure of rules and regulations to create a Christian community based on biblical ideals, not those of the Roman Catholic Church. This society placed great importance on the spiritual discipline of its people, heavily fining citizens who breached Calvin’s code. One major difference from the Catholic church was that Calvin only recognized two sacraments: baptism and communion (216). There were also strict penalties for drunkenness, singing unworthy songs, and brawling (217). Further attacking the Catholic Church, Calvin prohibits the adoration of idols, pilgrimages, papistical feasts or fasting, and attending mass (216). That Calvin admonishes going on pilgrimage and attending mass made his opinion of the Catholic church without doubt. His society was, in some ways, the antithesis of Rome.

Calvin’s Geneva depended on a system fines to maintain order and proper practice. The smallest of indiscretions, arriving late to sermon – or leaving early – held a fine of three sous, roughly a day’s wages (215). Fornication, on the other hand, between two unmarried people held a fine of sixty sous each and imprisoned for six days (217). Adultery came with a fine for an amount at the lord’s discretion and nine days imprisonment (217). These punishments were applied by the local secular lord as well as the consistory, the council of community leaders.

In this way, both the spiritual and secular leaders of the community worked together to safeguard their Christian society. The revenues gained from fines were split between the church, the local lord and the poor and needy in the community (218). This is further evidence of Calvin’s focus on creating a community of Christians, not only a church. Wrongdoers were admonished by the community. The community voted for their ‘guardians’, the church leaders (217). The fines levied were split between the authorities and those who needed it most. The Geneva Ordinances operates not only as a religious document prescribing correct practice, but also as a legal document that governs the whole community. Such a document would be welcomed in Calvin’s day – a day when Popes used the people’s money to build magnificent cathedrals and throw extravagant parties and couldn’t care less for the well being of the common Christian across the continent. This document was insurance that Geneva’s people would not be subject to papal theft, monetarily or spiritually. Geneva would stand together. The church, the secular lord, and the people would all work towards a common goal: a better Christian society.

Team 6, Question 3 – Henry VIII

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Reformation of the church was most often sought due to theological principles and authentic desire for papal integrity, but during the sixteenth century, King Henry VIII initiated reform in England due to his political needs. While Henry VIII believed the teachings of the church, it was evident through the scope of his reign that he had no theological problem adjusting some of those religious beliefs to meet his political and personal whims.

Henry’s marriage to Catharine of Aragon was an effort to strengthen ties with Spain – however, the legitimacy of the union was not certain as Catharine was Henry’s brother’s widow. As king, it was very important for Henry to produce a male heir to his throne in order to continue the power and legacy of his throne, but also to retain good religious standing by showing God’s presumed approval through a son. While Henry and his wife Catharine of Aragon did have a daughter, through time it became clear that they would not have a son. This created a big problem for Henry, who sought annulment from his unhappy marriage through the pope. Pope Clement VII was rightly concerned about his standing with Spain if he should approve the annulment and so he delayed as long as he could. It was suggested to Henry through papal representatives that he take a secret wife, although it would do no good to have an heir if Henry could not make him public. Catholic scholars agreed that Henry and Catherine’s marriage was invalid. While the marriage was considered invalid, the pope still resisted annulment, causing Henry to gradually shift authority of the church under himself as king and away from Rome. Doctrine was not the issue nor motivator – power and politics were.

In 1533 Henry managed to get annulment through ecclesiastical court, resulting in his excommunication by the pope. In response, Henry VIII issued a legal document refuting the pope’s authority and demanding a ‘loyalty oath’ to the king; abstaining was punishable by death. This document, Act of Supremecy of 1534, explicitly placed the King of England as head of the Church of England and use such language to describe the king as “sovereign lord” and “the only supreme head on earth.” Authority to interpret and enforce ecclesiastical duties in England was not the job of the pope in Rome, but of the English king and he alone “shall have full power and authority…(to) amend all errors, heresies, abuses…by any manner spiritual authority or jurisdiction ought or may lawfully be reformed, repressed, ordered…” Of course now that Henry had given himself the authority, he officially annulled his own marriage and then legalized his next marriage that had already taken place in private.

Henry’s split from the Roman church naturally was seen by Protestant Reformers as an encouraging sign. However, the reformation Henry had in mind had nothing to do with restoring integrity to church leadership or the revision of theological teachings that the Protestants championed. In fact, he wanted no part of a Protestant Reformation in England. Henry made this clear in his Act of Six Articles in 1539. In this document, Henry lists out several of the hottest topics for reformers and comes out strongly in favor of the Catholic church’s traditional position. For example, on the question of transubstantiation, it is deemed that the bread and wine do change substance completely to that only of the body and blood of Jesus. This position had been greatly contested by reformers, along with that of the position of the ability of clergy to marry. While the reformers saw no Biblical argument for clergy to remain unwed, Henry VIII agreed with the Catholic church’s stance in his articles that this tradition must be upheld. Anyone who disagreed (in teaching, writing, speaking, or even in mere opinion) would be declared a heretic, found guilty of treason and executed. These strong decrees clearly positioned Henry VIII’s new Church of England in alignment theologically with the Roman Catholic Church – in seemingly every way except that of the papal authority.

Team 3, Question 2

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Originally, John Calvin hoped for an ecclesiastical career in France, and became acquainted with humanism. When his father (who helped Calvin gain two ecclesiastical posts early on) had a falling out with the bishop of Noyon, Calvin pursued law, studying under two of the most famous jurists of the time. While it is not clear what caused Calvin to abandon Catholicism, Calvin left his ecclesiastical posts, and when King Francis I of France became more intolerant towards Protestants in 1535, Calvin fled to the primarily Protestant city of Basel, Switzerland. He eventually settled in Geneva after an eventful 6 years in which he wrote the Institutes of the Christian Religion, was kicked out of Geneva by the bourgeoisie-led government after being persuaded to build a church there, and pastored in Strasbourg, where he got married and wrote a second edition of Institutes. Finally, in Geneva, he composed the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, in which he proposed an organization of the ministry of the church in a way that reflected the New Testament. In the Ordinances, Calvin envisioned a society that is driven by communal piety and rules that Calvin thought reflected God’s law and the “Christian” lifestyle. Strict rules were set on church life and procedures, as well as temporal matters of churchgoers. Sermon attendance was compulsory, along with requirements including timeliness and attentiveness (215). Violators of these rules were punished through fines and, in extreme cases, imprisonment (215-217). Prohibition of quarrels between churchgoers, “outrageous” songs and dance, and drunkenness were all features of Calvin’s ordinances (217). Calvin also specified certain procedural things regarding baptism and communion.

These guidelines for Calvin’s ideal Christian community reflect Reformation concepts that circulated around Europe in the early-to-mid 16th century. There are only two sacraments discussed: baptism and communion, which is in agreement with Luther’s theology. Also, there seems to be a consensus among early reformers on the importance of resisting excesses, and we see this same idea in the Ordinances with the regulations regarding drink, song and dance, sexual immorality, and games with large quantities of money at stake (217). Like Calvin, many reformers condemned the abandonment of moderation under the Catholic Church, whose frivolous spending habits and lavish lifestyles of its clergy contradicted the humble life Jesus advocated for in the Gospels. Also, in the section “Superstitions,” Calvin lists several actions for which the offender should be admonished (216). Among these are idolatry, pilgrimage, and observation of the “papistical feasts,” for all of which the person at fault should be at the very least admonished, and in some cases, imprisoned or fined (216). Here, Calvinist doctrine explicitly departs from Catholic doctrine. Pilgrimage to holy sites and icons was encouraged by the Church, and pious acts like these were a significant monetary boost to the papal treasury, which funded the very extravagant building projects the reformers disapproved of. Next, any person who contradicts the Word of God is to be admonished, writes Calvin, and in some cases, where a scandal erupts, the matter is turned over to the local lord (217). There are two important ideas here. The reformers consistently accused the Catholic Church of deviating from the Bible and inserting rules into doctrine that are unsupported by scripture. In addition, the local lord (along with ministers and in some cases, guardians) ultimately had power over temporal matters, which is opposite of the Catholic Church, where religious authority had power over all matters, regardless of whether they were church business or not. For them, this represents an improvement over the previous Catholic society. Lastly, a common punishment was a fine, ranging from 3 sous (roughly the daily wage of an artisan) to 60 sous (215-217). These were relatively large quantities of money, and since there were no indulgences to purchase, the offender had no choice but to pay his fine and face the consequences of not being able to feed him/herself or his/her family. This was likely a great deterrent to breaking Calvin’s rules, which. In Calvin’s eyes, improved the cohesiveness and “Christian-ness” of society that was not apparent during Catholic times.

Ordinances gives us a glimpse into Calvin’s theology and his concept of an ideal, Christian community. It took a considerable amount of time for his ideas to be accepted in Geneva, as he still faced opposition for many of the same reasons as he did previously in Geneva. Eventually, in 1549 Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli’s successor Heinrich Bullinger signed the Zurich Consensus, a doctrinal agreement that sought to unite Protestant Switzerland.

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