Ancient Water Technology

Mar 17, 2021 | History, Individual Research (UG), innovation, Research | 0 comments

Ancient Water Technology

Leilani Kane

This research focuses on the water technology of ancient Mesopotamia to ancient Greece societies. Brief parts of this research also looks at Roman Latrines. The first half of the research specifically looks into Greek toilets and the different waste water systems that were used. In the second half of the research looks at the water technology that was created and used in these ancient societies. Through this research we begin to understand the different water technology that was created to support and sustain life in these societies. The theme throughout is get a better understanding of what these tools did, not just mechanically but also for understanding the society in their development over time. By focusing the research on Mesopotamia and Greece we can begin to understand how ancient societies thought and worked to create and maintain a steady sources of water and society. The primary mode of research on these societies was through primary and secondary research articles on the subject. These article range from broadly about the water technology to in-depth information on the water waste systems. From this research we found key water technology like water clocks, aqueducts, canals, and waste water systems that helped these ancient societies sustain life.

Ancient Greek Toilets & Water Systems

Looks a the private and public restrooms in Greece. Also talks about the different water waste systems used.

Water Technology in Ancient Societies

In this different types of water technology used in ancient societies are discussed.

Progress of Toilet Sewage Systems

This reflects on the Greek sewage systems research. It compares and contrasts with systems in place used around the world.

Water Technology & Latrines From Ancient Mesopotamia to Ancient Rome

A look at water technology history and ancient latrines.

Bibliography

Tamburrino, Aldo. “Water Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia.” Ancient Water Technologies, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 2010, pp. 29–51.

Mays, Larry W. “A Brief History of Water Technology During Antiquity: Before the Romans.” Ancient Water Technologies, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 2010, pp. 1–28.

Antoniou, Georgios P. “Ancient Greek Lavatories: Operation with Reused Water.” Ancient Water Technologies, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 2010, pp. 67–86.

Angelakis, A.N, et al. “Urban Wastewater and Stormwater Technologies in Ancient Greece.” Water Research (Oxford), vol. 39, no. 1, 2005, pp. 210–220.

Figure 1: Antoniou

Figure 2: Tamburrino

Figure 3: Angelakis

The Evolution of the Toilet

Mar 16, 2021 | BLACK BANNER, Individual Research (UG), innovation, Research | 0 comments

The Evolution of the Toilet

Brandon Volpicelli

The research is a compiled work of the innovations of the toilet from the past and where it can lead. How has the toilet come to the point it is at now? What were the events that led to decisions of changing the design and style? These are crucial questions to ask because before we as a collective can move forward we must know where we have been. By analyzing our history we can deduce what works and what does not and find out how to improve on the next iteration. By reading and researching through catalogs of the Industrial Revolution, I was able to depict the events, sicknesses and incidents that led to these modifications. The toilet has come a long way from a hole in a sandpit, however it still has much to improve upon and can change the way sustainability is looked at in a built environment.

Innovation and Mass Production of Toilets 1775-1895

A quick history of the events that lead to the development of the toilet in the Industrial Revolution.

Sustainable Toilets for the Future

How has sustainable design affected our toilets and where will it lead us to next?

Comparing and Contrasting Toilets from the Industrial Revolution

An analyzation of 20+ toilets and their progression over 45 iterations.

Timeline of Great Events During the Industrial Revolution

Bibliography

Alexander Cumming.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cumming#/media/File:Cummings_S-bend.jpg.

Antoniou GP, De Feo G, Fardin F, Tamburrino A, Khan S, Tie F, Reklaityte I, Kanetaki E, Zheng XY, Mays LW, Angelakis AN. “Evolution of Toilets Worldwide through the Millennia.” Sustainability. 2016; 8(8):779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080779

Barksdale, Nate. “Who Invented the Flush Toilet?” History. May 2015, edited April 2020.

byMike, Posted. “Bathroom Goes High-Tech With These Kohler Futuristic Bathroom Products.” SHOUTS, 28 Feb. 2018, mikeshouts.com/kohler-high-tech-bathroom-products-for-2018/.

“Great Stink.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 11 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Stink.

“Great Stink.” Wikiwand, www.wikiwand.com/en/Great_Stink.

“History of the Flush Toilet.” Toiletology, 1 Apr. 2020, toiletology.com/resources/history/history-of-the-flush-toilet/.

Ingrid Koo, PhD. “An Overview of Cholera.” Verywell Health, 6 Mar. 2020, www.verywellhealth.com/cholera-overview-1958786#:~:text=Foods%20should%20be%20thoroughly%20cooked,is%20vital%20to%20avoiding%20cholera.

Koolhaas, Rem. “Elements of Architecture.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. Pages 34-51. 2014.

“Long 19th Century – 1880-1914: Anecdotes, History, Writing…” Anecdotes, History, Writing… | … All the Things That Make Me Tick!, 3 Oct. 2019, bobdenton.com/home/writing/unpublished/shit-shower-and-shave/britains-long-nineteenth-century/long-19th-century-1880-1914/

Meyer-Sniffen co., limited [from old catalog. Illustrated Catalogue of Water-Closet and Bathing Arrangements for Public and Private Places. [New York], 1884. Internet Archive, http://archive.org/details/illustratedcatal02meye

Museum of London. “How Bazalgette Built London’s First Super Sewer.” Museum of London, Museum of London, 18 June 2019, www.museumoflondon.org.uk/discover/how-bazalgette-built-londons-first-super-sewer.

“Nano™ – 0.5/0.8 GPF Dual Flush Toilet.” Niagara Conservation, niagaracorp.com/products/nano/.

One Community. Most Sustainable Toilets: Research, Water-saving, and User Feedback.” One Community for the Highest Good of All. Dec, 2018. https://www.onecommunityglobal.org/most-sustainable-toilets/

Russ, Ena. “6 Modern Toilet Design Trends, Innovative Design Ideas.” Lushome, Lushome, 21 Oct. 2011, www.lushome.com/6-modern-toilet-design-trends-innovative-design-ideas/51518.

Tenement Outhouses. cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/7/18212/files/2021/01/tenementouthouses.jpg

“Thomas Crapper High-Level WC: WC And Bidets.” West One Bathrooms, westonebathrooms.com/collections/wc-and-bidets/thomas-crapper-high-level-wc/.

Treehugger.com. “Urine-Separating NoMix Toilet Gets Thumbs-up in European Countries.” Grist, 13 Mar. 2010, grist.org/article/2010-03-12-after-smart-grids-smart-sewage-urine-separating-nomix-toilet-get/.

Figure 1: S-Trap :

“Alexander Cumming.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cumming#/media/File:Cummings_S- bend.jpg.

Figure 2: Sustainable Urinals: One Community. Most Sustainable Toilets: Research, Water-saving, and User Feedback.” One Community for the Highest Good of All. Dec, 2018. https://www.onecommunityglobal.org/most-sustainable-toilets/

Figure 3: Multi-Use Toilet: Meyer-Sniffen co., limited [from old catalog. Illustrated Catalogue of Water-Closet and Bathing Arrangements for Public and Private Places. [New York], 1884. Internet Archive, http://archive.org/details/illustratedcatal02meye

Figure 4: Tenement Outhouses: Tenement Outhouses. cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/7/18212/files/2021/01/tenementouthouses.jpg

Metabolic Toilet in a Capsule

Mar 14, 2021 | Case Study, innovation, Research, technology | 1 comment

Toilets in Capsules During the Metabolism Movement

Elena Kato

Summary

The phrases “metabolism” and “capsule” was coined during a post-WWII Japanese movement by architect Kisho Kurokawa in the 1960s. Somewhat similar to the Arts and Crafts movement in the late nineteenth century, Kurokawa also believed that the architectural styles must reflect the cultural ideologies and beliefs based on the capabilities of its current technology. Metabolism is the kinetic form, or movement, of a space that is being developed; capsule is the “cyborg” of the architecture (Kurokawa 75). It is a transformed architectural typology that carries a new existence and meaning appropriate for the twentieth century, and it depends on humans as humans depend on them. Therefore, in a broader urban context, the capsule doesn’t integrate itself to the landscape as it would be considered in western architecture today. The “cyborg” will migrate as people physically migrate and their ideology of a “home” or a “room” shifts throughout time. In a society that adopts new technology at a rapid pace, the Metabolism movement utilizes mass production to create a variety of capsules with smaller “parts” that will further support the fast pace of the modern lifestyle.

Kisho Kurokawa.

Short Analysis of the Toilet in Metabolic Architecture

Metabolism didn’t necessarily have a certain style for a toilet, nor with any other spaces of a capsule. The movement takes advantage of the advancement in mass production and prefabrication to create smaller “parts” of a toilet, or a kitchen for occupants to be able to switch them out or add them. Though it promotes functional efficiency and can maintain low costs regarding rent and even maintenance, it also serves a qualitative purpose. Occupants can choose different styles depending on their likings, bodily needs, and/or cultural trends of the era; Kurokawa phrases this as being able to “adapt to the technetronic society” (Kurokawa 83). Its approach to flexible parts and interchangeability to ensure the longevity of capsules.

However, the way the bathroom is designed in most of Kurokawa’s work doesn’t project qualitative elements regarding comfort. It is often the smallest space in a capsule, and there is barely enough room for one person to step in and out of the bathtub. They only have to stand up instead of walking a few steps to the sink after using the toilet. It would feel as if it’s already crowded even when there is only one person using the bathroom. While Kurokawa states that the capsule serves a both functional and qualitatively flexible space in terms of interchangeable parts, there seems to be very little consideration in proxemic comfort for any group of two or more living in capsules, and should look at “parts” as something more spatially expandable.

The nature of the capsule’s flexible arrangement generates a unique style that is playful when looking at the entirety of the structure. It’s not a complete form like an American home, nor it is incomplete like a commercial infrastructure that is still in the process of construction. Some critics may argue that metabolism may be “trying too hard” to appear different or a “futuristic style” from the surrounding traditional structures, but the principles that are employed in the capsules automatically establishes this style.

Aerial View of the ‘70 Expo in Osaka, Japan. From a distance, it could even look like a large theme park.

PROJECTS

These 9 projects demonstrate the changeability of the external and internal parts of the capsule, or metabolism.

Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972)

Being a hot debate for demolition for decades, the iconic 140-unit Capsule Tower in Tokyo, Japan is one of Kurokawa’s most famous capsules that physically represented his idea in metabolic architecture. It is an individual bedroom dwelling with a bathroom in the corner that includes the common combination of a sink and even a small bath unit despite the total area of the dwelling being 2.5 m x 4 m (8.2 ft x 13 ft). A flush toilet was most likely installed since its introduction in the 1980s. There are two variations of the bathroom unit based on the orientation of the capsule that affected its plumbing process and make it more easier for workmen to repair (Kurokawa 107-111). Overall, the arrangement of the bathroom in the project was more function-oriented and did not consider comfort or personalization.

Exterior view of the Capsule Tower.

Isometric drawing of the interior. The bathroom is on the left corner.

Prefabricated Apartment House (1962)

This project was not constructed but included a similar concept to the Nakagin Capsule Tower. The functional units such as bathrooms, kitchens, and bedrooms are meant to be movable and replaceable like mobile homes, so it was separate from the main architectural spaces that connected these functional units, such as staircases or hallways (Kurokawa 93). Though the recurring theme of a small area doesn’t seem to accommodate larger families or groups, the Metabolism theory can be developed to spatially expand a kitchen or a bathroom by still utilizing mass production and prefabrication of capsule parts in a manner that continues to promote versatility of capsule homes. It cannot be just one capsule bathroom that has all the functions, but multiple and distributed so that more than one person can use the space at the same time.

Model of the Apartment House.

Top view of the model.

Details of the model.

Structural diagram.

Discothéque Space Capsule (1968)

This space was popular for nightclubs in Tokyo. It was entirely made out of stainless steel and was meant for adults to relieve their stresses from the constrictive work lifestyle in Japan (Kurokawa 95).

Interior of the capsule.

Colored photo of the capsule occupied by guests.

Floating Factory (1969)

This project took metabolism to a much larger scale of a factory. Similar to capsule homes, the factory uses mobile compositional units to accommodate for rapid technological development and the means of production (Kurokawa 96).

Model of the factory.

Closer look at the model.

Capsule House in Theme Pavillion (1970)

This house was showcased in the Expo ‘70 Osaka World Exposition (a continuation from the Great Exhibition since 1851) and was suspended above the ground to exert a futuristic style suitable for mobility. There were two bathrooms on the edges that included a toilet, sink, and a bathtub in a similar arrangement to the Nakagin Capsule Tower (Kurokawa 98). It can be inferred from Kurokawa’s emphasis on prefabrication that the bathrooms were also prefabricated and replicated for different projects. The central unit connects the functional units on edges of the polygon and out of the other projects so far, best illustrates the capsule form as being able to arrange and rearrange based on the number of people living there as well as personal preference.

Model.

Capsule hung from the main structure, view from below.

Plan drawing of the capsule. Bathrooms are located on the left and right part and is oval-shaped.

Interior of the kitchen space.

Takara Beautilion (1970)

This was another project exhibited in the Osaka World Exposition. The steel pipes that outlined and structurally supported the units were fairly easy to assemble (Kurokawa 102). Capsules could be moved anywhere and didn’t completely fill the pavilion to highlight its interchangeability.

Facade.

Section Drawing.

Construction layout of the membrane units.

Interior photo of the entrance. Flower-shaped chairs are hanging from the ceiling.

Capsule Village (1972)

Capsule Village was an extension from the Nakagin Capsule Tower but was built in a rural site. It is also slightly larger and broken into three different units: the mechanical section, a living section, and the sleeping section. An imperative aspect to Japanese culture, the sloping pipe intended to protect nature and its wildlife. Like a factory assembly line, the capsules will be placed on top of the “bridge” (Kurokawa 118).

Conceptual model of the structure.

Isometric drawing of the capsule, divded into three units.

Physical unit of the capsule.

Capsule House ‘K’ (1972)

The same capsules units from the Nakagin Capsule Tower was used for this project, but included more spacious units that separated functions such as the kitchen and the bedrooms. It was also designed more like a summer home than an apartment or a hotel.

The interior followed the standard 2.5 m x 4 m dimension, which is the same as for a teahouse in the sixteenth century, including its round windows. Its prefabrication emphasizes the positive regard for technological advancement even when creating something inspired by older styles (Kurokawa 113).

Exterior view from bottom of the hill.

Detailed plan drawings, upper floor/roof (top) and the first floow (bottom).

Section drawing.

Interior photo of the living room.

Concrete Capsule House (1975)

This experimental project is structured similarly to the Capsule Village in a suburban setting. It consists of individualized 3 m x 6m (9.8 ft x 19.7 ft) units that includes bedrooms, dining room, kitchen, bathroom/machine, and the living room. They are joined together by molding concrete (Kurokawa 45).

Model.

Plan drawing.

Construction of the capsule.

Bibliography

Kurokawa, Kishō. Metabolism in Architecture. London: Studio Vista, 1977. Print, pp. 75-119.

Image sources

“Kisho Kurokawa.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisho_Kurokawa.

Kurokawa, Kishō. Metabolism in Architecture. London: Studio Vista, 1977. Print, pp. 92-119.

@Mulboyne. “Before Nakagin Capsule Tower, Kisho Kurokawa Was the Architect for Nightlife Hotspot Space Capsule in Akasaka. https://T.co/mvJcg1Kbu6 Pic.twitter.com/A0arT09lil.” Twitter, Twitter, 23 Apr. 2017, twitter.com/mulboyne/status/856041793028108288.

Sustainable Toilets of the Future

Feb 14, 2021 | innovation, Reflection | 0 comments

Sustainable Toilets for the Future

Brandon Volpicelli

“Green Toilet” https://www.coloradoboulevard.net/sustainable-toilets/

Introduction

This highly studied entity that follows with human existence is the necessity to defecate. As we know from lectures, it dates back to Egyptians excreting in the sand and has transformed to the water flushing toilet of the modern age. There have been many steps since then and there are many steps it must take in order to become more sustainable. I will briefly introduce the history, lead into how sustainable toilets work now, and end with where we can improve sustainability.

Alexander Cummings’ S-Trap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cumming

Brief History

The first iteration of the toilet we know today was invented in 1596 by Sir John Harrington in England and it dispenses the excrement into a cesspool (Antoniou 42). This is the first time a device moves the feces into another area. From this, Alexander Cummings made the second iteration with a new invention called the S-trap in 1775. This allowed water to sit in the pipe and block the sewer gasses from rising back into the space. From this point on the toilet transforms and multiplies in order to balance the needs of comfort to responding to sickness and disease. By the 1850’s sewers were being orchestrated and houses were required to have a form of water closet or toilet if a renovation or new project was built (Koolhaas 34). This then leads to more problems however. With every household having a toilet that flushes, water waste and the cost of water bills begin to rise. In fact, in 1872 in England, the Metropolis Water Act “forbids Londoners from keeping their toilets from constantly flushing– a common practice, turning the toilet into a fountain, wasting vast quantities of water” (Koolhaas 38).

Modern Age Sustainability

When thinking about how the modern era has pushed for toilet sustainability, the general consensus is reducing the amount of water used. The average toilet uses 1.6 GPF (gallons per flush) and reduction of this number would be greatly significant in the fight for sustainability (One Community Para. 8). One Community is an organization trying to make a difference in the sustainability world. They examine the best toilets they can find for reducing water use. The highest ranked device on their list is the Niagara Nano Dual Flush that has two different flushes, one being .8 GPF and the other .6 GPF (One Community Para. 9). This is incredible, nearly dropping the GPF by half and more. The second best being the Caroma Profile Smart 305 Dual Flush Toilet with Sink which is an extremely interesting design that has a sink on the back basin. This unit has the dual flush option as well with a high power being 1.28 GPF and a low of .8 GPF (One Community Para. 10). These designs greatly reduce the amount of water used in the modern age for sustainable design currently highlight the highest end of today’s toilets. However sustainable design in the future might not be so much about flushing with less water but more about separation of feces and urine from the water to be able to reuse the wastewater.

Niagara Nano Toilet https://niagaracorp.com/products/nano/

Urine Separating Toilet https://grist.org/article/2010-03-12-after-smart-grids-smart-sewage-urine-separating-nomix-toilet-get/

Future Sustainability

Sustainable toilet design needs to be a key factor when looking forward to overall sustainable design. Antoniou states, “the major global water and wastewater challenges are: population growth and urbanization including growth of small/medium size unplanned towns, use/consumption, competition between sectors, energy, climate change and/or variability, aging, deteriorating or outdated critical infrastructure”(45). Antoniou researched toilets that have a urine separating compartment in the front of the toilet. Possible for all genders to be able to use. This design allows the separation of the greywater from the urine and feces. The researched toilets were three different types, vacuum, urine separating, and spacecraft toilets. Each uniquely isolates the water from the excrement.

Reflection

This is the way we need to move forward as a growing society. Once the water is isolated it can then be cleaned and reused for gardening or other water bearing activities. The toilet is just the starting point of the movement. We as designers need to be thinking about this in our design. If we create one full net zero emissions and usage building that is great but completely useless when that building is sitting next to one hundred other buildings that use the maximum amount of utilities. Change needs to happen from more than one person trying to make a stance. By using toilets like these across the globe water usage will drastically fall and be one step to making a better environment for ourselves and our future.

Kohler-High-tech-Bathroom-Products-for-2018-Featured-image-672x372

Futuristic Toilet https://mikeshouts.com/kohler-high-tech-bathroom-products-for-2018/

Bibliography

Koolhaas, Rem. “Elements of Architecture.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. Pages 34-51. 2014.

Innovation and Mass Production of Toilets 1775-1895 [UPDATED]

Feb 1, 2021 | History, Industrial Revolution, innovation, Research, technology | 3 comments

Innovation and Mass Production of Toilets 1775-1895

Brandon Volpicelli

S-Trap by Alexander Cummings

The toilet has been rethought and redesigned since long before even the days of the Egyptians. There is evidence of this uncovered by archeologists and since then has evolved into a massive network that runs as a way to maintain a clean environment. According to Barksdale the original iteration of the modern toilet was developed by Sir John Harington in 1596 and was a “2-foot-deep oval bowl waterproofed with pitch, resin and wax and fed by water from an upstairs cistern. Flushing Harington’s pot required 7.5 gallons of water…”(Para. 3). An extremely high amount of water when clean water was scarce. This model was made for Queen Elizabeth I and proceeded to be used solely by the wealthy for nearly two centuries.

Rem Koolhaas lays out a series of events from 1775 to 1895 in consecutive order depicting the changes and the factors that led to the remodel of the water closet to the toilet. This evolution did not occur overnight and is still continually being improved upon in the modern day. Koolhaas’ work explains the necessity for innovation and even mass production of the toilet in the 16th and 17th centuries. (Koolhaas 34-51)

https://lavatoryreader.typepad.com/.a/6a0120a58872a6970b0120a7b6bea2970b-popup

Image 2: Joseph Bramah’s modification to Alexander Cummings’ design on the water closet.

The need for innovation was in part due to comfort of the user but mainly underlying safety and health issues. In 1775, Alexander Cummings had a patent created for the s-trap. A way to protect the sewer line gases from coming up through the drains. If water sits in this bend, it will provide an easy barrier that gases can not travel back up through. However, that innovation was not enough to counter the smell as there was a much larger problem. Almost immediately, the plumbing system needed to be innovated due to the minimal infrastructure in place to hold all of the waste due to a law in 1815 making it illegal to connect to the city sewers. As time continued problems began to worsen. (Koolhaas 34)

In 1778, Alexander Cummings’ model was modified by Joseph Bramah who was a cabinetmaker. Meanwhile, while slight modifications were being made to the water closet, there were other experiments of toilets at this time. Someone developed the earth closet which tried replacing water with dirt as a flushing method. Another was the pan closet which acted as a trap door that would drop the excrement into a cesspool below. You could say these ideas didn’t pan out. (Antoniou 42)

6a0120a58872a6970b0120a7b6bea2970b-800wi

https://lavatoryreader.typepad.com/.a/6a0120a58872a6970b0120a7b6bea2970b-popup

Image 2: Joseph Bramah’s modification to Alexander Cummings’ design on the water closet.

https://twitter.com/ThomasCrapperCo/status/661883118375202816/photo/1

Image 3: George Jennings’ Monkey Closet designed in 1851. First Use of porcelain and was unveiled in the Great Exhibition.

There was a great need for the mass production of toilets when a mass outbreak of cholera killed 14,000 people in 1848, people were required to have a water closet to dispose of their waste. In 1851 George Jennings developed the monkey closet which was a variation of the water closet however it had a different trap. The use of the Great Exhibition as an advertisement worked extremely well as nearly 1,500 of the 11,000 people there daily would use it. The next year Jennings created the flush toilet and it was widely attached to. Yes, mass production of this led to the 200,000 toilets sending feces to the Thames however that was dealt with by connecting to the sewers. (Koolhaas 34)

By the 1850’s there were over 200,000 toilets, and with the decommissioning of 30,000 cesspools the Thames was being overloaded by waste. This creates issues like the Great Stink which occurred when England had reached the highest recorded temperatures, and the Thames River was full of fecal matter from the toilet’s drainage. It created a nauseating stench for an entire summer in 1858. Then the following year, most toilets were attached to the sewer lines. The story behind the innovation of the toilet was due mainly to a problem arising and a need to combat it. This occurred and reoccurred until the problems were all overcome. (Koolhaas 36)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Stink#/media/File:The_silent_highwayman.jpg

Image 4: “The Silent Highwayman” An artistic representation of death coming for those due to the extreme condition of the Thames during the Great Stink.

https://bshm.org.uk/joseph-bazalgette-28-3-1819-15-3-1891/

Image 5: Joseph Bazalgette portrayed in a cartoon

As time passed in the 1870’s, it was a health requirement to have proper sanitation in people’s homes which kept homes cleaner and healthier. By introducing every home to have a toilet it lowered the probability of another disease outbreak from fecal matter, especially since they were not being directed into the river that the Londoners use for living. In 1883 there was such an abundance of toilets being used that Joseph Bazalgette developed 1,200 miles of sewer tunnels under London to allow for this influx of production. While mass production of the toilet seemingly created problems with the abundance of waste being directed it helped deplete more problems than it created. As sewers were grown to accommodate the influx of toilets, waste was no longer being kept close to the users and rather taken farther away, not just to a river nearby. (Koolhaas 38-42)

In 1884, Thomas Crapper manufactured a flushing toilet line, a similar model to the previous one however an added invention of his own, the ballcock. A floating valve that refills the tank before the next flush in an effort to decrease the amount of water used. This strategy is still used to this day in flush toilets. (Barksdale Para. 8)

https://www.agupdate.com/agriview/lifestyles/farmlife/one-of-the-first-thomas-crapper-toilet-designs/pdf_336630fd-7caa-5e49-aadb-8c9eff428855.html

Image 6: Thomas Crapper’s Flush Down Water Closet Basin with Ballcock

The innovation and mass production of the toilet turned it into what it is today and the advancements they are making today would never have been possible without the struggle and errors that occurred in the past.

Bibliography

Barksdale, Nate. “Who Invented the Flush Toilet?” History. May 2015, edited April 2020.

Koolhaas, Rem. “Elements of Architecture.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. Pages 34-51. 2014.