The Evolution of the Toilet

Mar 16, 2021 | BLACK BANNER, Individual Research (UG), innovation, Research | 0 comments

The Evolution of the Toilet

Brandon Volpicelli

The research is a compiled work of the innovations of the toilet from the past and where it can lead. How has the toilet come to the point it is at now? What were the events that led to decisions of changing the design and style? These are crucial questions to ask because before we as a collective can move forward we must know where we have been. By analyzing our history we can deduce what works and what does not and find out how to improve on the next iteration. By reading and researching through catalogs of the Industrial Revolution, I was able to depict the events, sicknesses and incidents that led to these modifications. The toilet has come a long way from a hole in a sandpit, however it still has much to improve upon and can change the way sustainability is looked at in a built environment.

Innovation and Mass Production of Toilets 1775-1895

A quick history of the events that lead to the development of the toilet in the Industrial Revolution.

Sustainable Toilets for the Future

How has sustainable design affected our toilets and where will it lead us to next?

Comparing and Contrasting Toilets from the Industrial Revolution

An analyzation of 20+ toilets and their progression over 45 iterations.

Timeline of Great Events During the Industrial Revolution

Bibliography

Alexander Cumming.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cumming#/media/File:Cummings_S-bend.jpg.

Antoniou GP, De Feo G, Fardin F, Tamburrino A, Khan S, Tie F, Reklaityte I, Kanetaki E, Zheng XY, Mays LW, Angelakis AN. “Evolution of Toilets Worldwide through the Millennia.” Sustainability. 2016; 8(8):779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080779

Barksdale, Nate. “Who Invented the Flush Toilet?” History. May 2015, edited April 2020.

byMike, Posted. “Bathroom Goes High-Tech With These Kohler Futuristic Bathroom Products.” SHOUTS, 28 Feb. 2018, mikeshouts.com/kohler-high-tech-bathroom-products-for-2018/.

“Great Stink.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 11 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Stink.

“Great Stink.” Wikiwand, www.wikiwand.com/en/Great_Stink.

“History of the Flush Toilet.” Toiletology, 1 Apr. 2020, toiletology.com/resources/history/history-of-the-flush-toilet/.

Ingrid Koo, PhD. “An Overview of Cholera.” Verywell Health, 6 Mar. 2020, www.verywellhealth.com/cholera-overview-1958786#:~:text=Foods%20should%20be%20thoroughly%20cooked,is%20vital%20to%20avoiding%20cholera.

Koolhaas, Rem. “Elements of Architecture.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. Pages 34-51. 2014.

“Long 19th Century – 1880-1914: Anecdotes, History, Writing…” Anecdotes, History, Writing… | … All the Things That Make Me Tick!, 3 Oct. 2019, bobdenton.com/home/writing/unpublished/shit-shower-and-shave/britains-long-nineteenth-century/long-19th-century-1880-1914/

Meyer-Sniffen co., limited [from old catalog. Illustrated Catalogue of Water-Closet and Bathing Arrangements for Public and Private Places. [New York], 1884. Internet Archive, http://archive.org/details/illustratedcatal02meye

Museum of London. “How Bazalgette Built London’s First Super Sewer.” Museum of London, Museum of London, 18 June 2019, www.museumoflondon.org.uk/discover/how-bazalgette-built-londons-first-super-sewer.

“Nano™ – 0.5/0.8 GPF Dual Flush Toilet.” Niagara Conservation, niagaracorp.com/products/nano/.

One Community. Most Sustainable Toilets: Research, Water-saving, and User Feedback.” One Community for the Highest Good of All. Dec, 2018. https://www.onecommunityglobal.org/most-sustainable-toilets/

Russ, Ena. “6 Modern Toilet Design Trends, Innovative Design Ideas.” Lushome, Lushome, 21 Oct. 2011, www.lushome.com/6-modern-toilet-design-trends-innovative-design-ideas/51518.

Tenement Outhouses. cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/7/18212/files/2021/01/tenementouthouses.jpg

“Thomas Crapper High-Level WC: WC And Bidets.” West One Bathrooms, westonebathrooms.com/collections/wc-and-bidets/thomas-crapper-high-level-wc/.

Treehugger.com. “Urine-Separating NoMix Toilet Gets Thumbs-up in European Countries.” Grist, 13 Mar. 2010, grist.org/article/2010-03-12-after-smart-grids-smart-sewage-urine-separating-nomix-toilet-get/.

Figure 1: S-Trap :

“Alexander Cumming.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cumming#/media/File:Cummings_S- bend.jpg.

Figure 2: Sustainable Urinals: One Community. Most Sustainable Toilets: Research, Water-saving, and User Feedback.” One Community for the Highest Good of All. Dec, 2018. https://www.onecommunityglobal.org/most-sustainable-toilets/

Figure 3: Multi-Use Toilet: Meyer-Sniffen co., limited [from old catalog. Illustrated Catalogue of Water-Closet and Bathing Arrangements for Public and Private Places. [New York], 1884. Internet Archive, http://archive.org/details/illustratedcatal02meye

Figure 4: Tenement Outhouses: Tenement Outhouses. cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/7/18212/files/2021/01/tenementouthouses.jpg

Comparing and Contrasting Toilets from the Industrial Revolution

Mar 15, 2021 | BLACK BANNER, Case Study, Industrial Revolution, Research | 0 comments

Comparing and Contrasting Toilets

from the Industrial Revolution

Brandon Volpicelli | Phase-2 Research | IARC 475 | March 14, 2021

The Industrial Revolution showed the evolution of countless innovations. Meyer-Sniffen Co. developed over 45 different water closets with adjustments of traps, shapes, materials, and flushing techniques in this setting.

Each Meyer-Sniffen model contains a cistern several feet above the basin and some form of flushing upon completion. Yet, numerous differences can be spotted showing the growth of the toilet over this period of time. The beginning of the catalog depicts a large basin with a pull lever for flushing that holds water in its basin prior to use. This idea doesn’t circle back until the No. 30 model which is shocking since that is what is used in current examples. The other differences are the style in which the basins were flushed and their shapes.

Upon their research the initial idea of holding water in the basin was found to be a waste. An unfilled basin that flushes before and after saves water for each use. The style of flush, after the initial lever had been adapted into both the pressure plate and pull chain, continued to vary between those two adaptations in future iterations. The size of the bowl was also adjusted as a means to need less water to flush.

Inspiration due to innovations of the Industrial Revolution would be the use of a trap built into the unit and materiality of the water closets and cisterns. An interesting sight was the trap that kept being added and subtracted from the unit over time. The materials kept progressing, the basin became porcelain then shifted to earthenware and the trap adapted to stronger materials. It can be seen that small adjustments to parts are being made as they are being invented. One example is the new clamp additions that connect the basin to the trap and then to the ground. As the models progress these change metals, keeping up with the most modern versions..

There are three similarities from the toilets of this time and that of the current examples in the USA; material, shape, flush action. In the 21st century, toilets are made out of porcelain which was seen in several examples from the Industrial Revolution. The shape of the basin matches that of the iterations from No. 30 and above. The flush action is similar to modern flushing however, instead of pulling on a cord it is a handle that reacts the same way causing the flush of water that was being held in the basin. The true difference is the cistern being held so high, now it is contained all in one simple unit together sitting as nearly a backrest on the toilet.

Six categories can be made of the toilets from the Meyer-Sniffen Water-Closets of the Industrial Revolution; the arrangement of the trap with the subcategories of in-ground or above ground, the next is the flushing system with lever, pressure plate, and pull chain as its subcategories, and the outliers of the group which are multi-person use and self flushing toilets.

Trap Placement

In-Ground Traps; No. 10, No. 16, No. 23, and No. 27

No. 10 Plate 22; A Hellyer Artisan Hopper flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Waste Preventing Cistern with Chain and Tassel

–A cord is pulled in order to draw water from the cistern to wash the excrements down. Water is to be flushed before and after use so that the basin is wet prior to use and clean after. This water closet has no S or P Trap built in which means it relies on one being in place in the pre-existing building under the floor. (Page 24)

Figure 1. No.10 Plate 22 (Page 24)

No. 16 Plate 32; A Hellyer Artisan Hopper flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Waste Preventing Cistern Arranged to Operate by the Door

—A water closet in a closet, when the door is opened a chain is pulled through a pulley contraption flushing the toilet to wet the Hopper. It continues to expel water down however it is held to a limit to not release a constant heavy flow of water. Once complete the door closes flushing the excrements and ready to be opened and used again. Trap not included, required in the infrastructure below the water closet. (Page 32)

Figure 2. No. 16 Plate 32 (Page 32)

No. 23 Plate 38; Hellyer Long Hopper with “Em Ess” Cast Lead Lined Syphon Cistern with Chain and Tassel

—Improved flushing rim to keep bowl wet before and after use. Chain and tassel flush action with no built in trap, must be in the infrastructure. (Page 40)

Figure 3. No. 23 Plate 38 (Page 40)

No. 27 Plate 42; Hellyer Artisan Hopper, flushed with small “Em Ess” Cast Lead Lined, Air Pipe, Valve Cistern with Chain and Tassel.

—A very similar adaptation of the model No. 14, this included the “Em Ess” cistern system. No trap above ground requiring the infrastructure to supply one. (Page 44)

Figure 4. No. 27 Plate 42 (Page 44)

Trap Placement

Above Ground / In Unit Traps; No. 12, No. 24, No. 26, and No. 30

Figure 5. No. 12 Plate 26 (Page 28)

No. 12 Plate 26; Hellyer Short Artisan Hopper with earthen trap set above the floor, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s No. 4 Patent Regulator Sure-Supply Cistern With Chain and Tassel

—A built into unit trap that sits above the floor and doesn’t require a preset trap in infrastructure. Uses a chain for the flush system and must be flushed before and after use to wet and clean the basin. (Page 28)

Figure 6. No. 24 Plate 39 (Page 41)

No. 24 Plate 39; Hellyer Short Artisan Hopper with earthenware trap to set above the floor and “Em Ess” Cast Lead Lined Syphon Cistern with Chain and Tassel

—Simple pull flush toilet system with trap above ground making it easier to place in the building. Very similar to model No. 12 however uses the “Em Ess” cistern system. (Page 41)

Figure 7. No. 26 Plate 41 (Page 43)

No. 26 Plate 41; Hellyer Short Artisan Hopper with earthenware trap to set above the floor, flushed by No. 7 “Em Ess” Cast Lead-lined cistern with Chain and Tassel.

—The basin being a similar model to No. 14, however an above ground trap and a chain to pull as the flushing system still needs to be flushed before and after use. Above ground trap allows it to be placed anywhere. (Page 43)

Figure 8. No. 30 Plate 44 (Page 47)

No. 30 Plate 44; Brighton Water-closet, cistern, brackets, patent floor flange, Chain and Tassel.

—Extreme jump to modern shape of the toilet. All one piece, trap behind the bowl rather than to the side and the bowl constantly holds water until flush by pull of the chain. (Page 47)

Flushing Systems

Lever Pull; No. 1, No. 7, No. 9, and No. 11

No. 1 Plate 1; Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Water Closet Apparatus, Hellyer

—Ovular shaped basin with lever contraption to flush. No built in trap, infrastructure requires it below the placement. This toilet is always ⅔ full of water and is flushed with 8 gallons of water from the cistern. (Page 4)

Figure 9. No. 1 Plate 1 (Page 4)

No. 7 Plate 16; Hellyer Artisan Hopper, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s No. 4 Cistern, Cup, Pull, and Standard.

—The basin now circular and is empty prior to use, needing the handle to be lifted before and after use, to wet the bowl. There is no built in trap making it required in the infrastructure. (Page 18)

Figure 10. No. 7 Plate 16 (Page 18)

No. 9 Plate 20; Hellyer Artisan Hopper, flushed with The Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s No. 8 Waste Preventing Cistern, Cup, Pull, and Standard

—Similar to No. 7, lifting the handle is required to wet the basin prior and post use. Also has no trap above ground requiring it in the infrastructure as well. The one difference from No. 7 is the size of the cistern. (Page 22)

Figure 11. No. 9 Plate 20 (Page 22)

No. 11 Plate 24; Hellyer Short Hopper with earthen trap set above the floor, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s No. 4 Pat. Regulator Sure-Supply Cistern, Cup, Pull, and Standard.

—An improved shape and flushing rim, with brass connection to earthenware trap. Handle still needs to be lifted prior and post use to wet the bowl as the bowl doesn’t hold water. (Page 26)

Figure 12. No. 11 Plate 24 (Page 26)

Flushing Systems

Pressure Plates; No. 3, No. 5, No. 31, and No. 33

Figure 13. No. 3 Plate 3 (Page 6)

No. 3 Plate 3; Water Closet Apparatus with Improved Flushing Rim, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Patent Regulator No. 2 Waste Preventing Cistern Complete with Seat and all attachments.

—The first pressure plated seat, when sat upon it flushes to wet the bowl and then when the weight is lifted the bowl is flushed again. This basin has an improved flushing rim and no above ground trap. (Page 6)

Figure 14. No. 5 Plate 11 (Page 13)

No. 5 Plate 11; Hellyer Short Artisan Hopper with earthenware trap to set above the floor, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Patent Regulator No. 2 Waste Preventing Cistern

—A pressure plated flush system that activated when sat upon for before and after use flushing. Improved cistern and added trap above floor were the changes made to No. 3. (Page 13)

Figure 15. No. 31 Plate 46 (Page 49)

No. 31 Plate 46; Brighton Water Closet– To work automatically flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Regulator No. 2 Waste-Preventing Cistern.

—This model uses the previous model, No. 30, all one unit, trap behind the bowl rather than to the side. Uses a pressure plate attachment as a flushing system control. (Page 49)

Figure 16. No. 33 Plate 50 (Page 53)

No. 33 Plate 50; Brighton Water Closet without trap, to work automatically, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Regulator No. 2 Waste Preventing Cistern.

—New model of the toilet, a sleeker design however the trap is not included. Use of pressure plate flushing makes it simple for users, as it works automatically. (Page 53)

Flushing Systems

Chain and Tassel; No. 8, No. 15, No. 28, and No. 32

No. 8 Plate 18; Hellyer Artisan Hopper Flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s No. 4 Cistern with Chain and Tassel.

—Same model as prior, No. 7, with the addition of a pull cord rather than the lever. Flushing needs to be prior and post use to wet the bowl and this model saves about 2 dollars a use. No trap in this iteration. (Page 20)

Figure 17. No. 8 Plate 18 (Page 20)

No. 15 Plate 30; Hellyer Artisan Hopper, flushed from the Meyer-Sniffen Co.’s Waste Preventing Cistern arranged to Operate by the Door.

—The use of the Model No. 11 with the closet attachment. Helps to conceal the toilet while also activating it upon opening and closing of the closet door which pulls the chain for the user. No trap on this iteration. (Page 32)

Figure 18. No. 15 Plate 30 (Page 32)

No. 28 Plate 43; Hellyer Short Artisan Hopper with earthenware trap to set above floor, flushed with small “Em Ess” cast lead line, air-pipe, valve cistern with Chain and Tassel.

—Similar to the Model No. 14, however with a trap connection. Uses a pull cord to flush before and after use to ensure wetting of the bowl, water released from the “Em Ess” cistern system. (Page 45)

Figure 19. No. 28 Plate 43 (Page 45)

No. 32 Plate 48; Brighton Water Closet, without trap, cistern, brackets, with Chain and Tassel. “The Brighton without trap is intended to be put where the trap is already in, or where pirates prefer it below the floor.”

—This toilet takes the innovative and novel design model of No. 30 and makes a few adjustments. The main shift is the lack of a trap which requires specific placement in the infrastructure. Uses a pull cord for flushing and just needs to be used once due to it already being full of water. (Page 51)

Figure 20. No. 32 Plate 48 (Page 51)

Other Outliers from the Catalog

Multiple Joined Water Closets; No. 4 and No. 6

Figure 21. No. 4 Plate 9 (Page 11)

No. 4 Plate 9; Hellyer No. 4 Water Closet Apparatus

—This iteration is based off of No. 3 however it is a connection of multiple toilets together. A function highly valued during the Industrial Revolution in factories, railway stations, schools, etc. where the toilets are in constant use. This model uses pressure plates to draw water from the massive cistern to wash away the excrement and wet the basin before and after use. There is no trap requiring it in the infrastructure below the floor. (Page 11)

Figure 22. No. 6 Plate 15 (Page 17)

No. 6 Plate 15; Hellyer Short Artisan Hopper with Earthenware Trap to Set Above the Floor

—This multi-toilet can be as long as needed in the proposal of the client. Adaptation of No. 4, using the pressure plate similarly. However this iteration uses above the ground traps making it easier to use in the building. Used for public places much like the previous multi-toilet. (Page 17)

Other Outliers from the Catalog

Automatic Flushing; No. 13

No. 13 Plate 28; Rhoads’ Porcelain-Seated Hopper, with flush tank for use in exposed places where water is liable to freeze.

—This toilet not only has a novel shape for the time, but has an unheard of aspect of self flushing. The unit will flush at intervals determined by the user but it doesn’t need to be activated during use. It helps keep water from freezing in pipes of cold places but also the use in urinals to keep units clean. (Page 30)

Figure 23. No. 13 Plate 28 (Page 30)

Bibliography

Meyer-Sniffen co., limited [from old catalog. Illustrated Catalogue of Water-Closet and Bathing Arrangements for Public and Private Places. [New York], 1884. Internet Archive, http://archive.org/details/illustratedcatal02meye

Image source

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Sustainable Toilets for the Future

Feb 15, 2021 | Research | 0 comments

Sustainable Toilets of the Future

Feb 14, 2021 | innovation, Reflection | 0 comments

Sustainable Toilets for the Future

Brandon Volpicelli

“Green Toilet” https://www.coloradoboulevard.net/sustainable-toilets/

Introduction

This highly studied entity that follows with human existence is the necessity to defecate. As we know from lectures, it dates back to Egyptians excreting in the sand and has transformed to the water flushing toilet of the modern age. There have been many steps since then and there are many steps it must take in order to become more sustainable. I will briefly introduce the history, lead into how sustainable toilets work now, and end with where we can improve sustainability.

Alexander Cummings’ S-Trap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cumming

Brief History

The first iteration of the toilet we know today was invented in 1596 by Sir John Harrington in England and it dispenses the excrement into a cesspool (Antoniou 42). This is the first time a device moves the feces into another area. From this, Alexander Cummings made the second iteration with a new invention called the S-trap in 1775. This allowed water to sit in the pipe and block the sewer gasses from rising back into the space. From this point on the toilet transforms and multiplies in order to balance the needs of comfort to responding to sickness and disease. By the 1850’s sewers were being orchestrated and houses were required to have a form of water closet or toilet if a renovation or new project was built (Koolhaas 34). This then leads to more problems however. With every household having a toilet that flushes, water waste and the cost of water bills begin to rise. In fact, in 1872 in England, the Metropolis Water Act “forbids Londoners from keeping their toilets from constantly flushing– a common practice, turning the toilet into a fountain, wasting vast quantities of water” (Koolhaas 38).

Modern Age Sustainability

When thinking about how the modern era has pushed for toilet sustainability, the general consensus is reducing the amount of water used. The average toilet uses 1.6 GPF (gallons per flush) and reduction of this number would be greatly significant in the fight for sustainability (One Community Para. 8). One Community is an organization trying to make a difference in the sustainability world. They examine the best toilets they can find for reducing water use. The highest ranked device on their list is the Niagara Nano Dual Flush that has two different flushes, one being .8 GPF and the other .6 GPF (One Community Para. 9). This is incredible, nearly dropping the GPF by half and more. The second best being the Caroma Profile Smart 305 Dual Flush Toilet with Sink which is an extremely interesting design that has a sink on the back basin. This unit has the dual flush option as well with a high power being 1.28 GPF and a low of .8 GPF (One Community Para. 10). These designs greatly reduce the amount of water used in the modern age for sustainable design currently highlight the highest end of today’s toilets. However sustainable design in the future might not be so much about flushing with less water but more about separation of feces and urine from the water to be able to reuse the wastewater.

Niagara Nano Toilet https://niagaracorp.com/products/nano/

Urine Separating Toilet https://grist.org/article/2010-03-12-after-smart-grids-smart-sewage-urine-separating-nomix-toilet-get/

Future Sustainability

Sustainable toilet design needs to be a key factor when looking forward to overall sustainable design. Antoniou states, “the major global water and wastewater challenges are: population growth and urbanization including growth of small/medium size unplanned towns, use/consumption, competition between sectors, energy, climate change and/or variability, aging, deteriorating or outdated critical infrastructure”(45). Antoniou researched toilets that have a urine separating compartment in the front of the toilet. Possible for all genders to be able to use. This design allows the separation of the greywater from the urine and feces. The researched toilets were three different types, vacuum, urine separating, and spacecraft toilets. Each uniquely isolates the water from the excrement.

Reflection

This is the way we need to move forward as a growing society. Once the water is isolated it can then be cleaned and reused for gardening or other water bearing activities. The toilet is just the starting point of the movement. We as designers need to be thinking about this in our design. If we create one full net zero emissions and usage building that is great but completely useless when that building is sitting next to one hundred other buildings that use the maximum amount of utilities. Change needs to happen from more than one person trying to make a stance. By using toilets like these across the globe water usage will drastically fall and be one step to making a better environment for ourselves and our future.

Kohler-High-tech-Bathroom-Products-for-2018-Featured-image-672x372

Futuristic Toilet https://mikeshouts.com/kohler-high-tech-bathroom-products-for-2018/

Bibliography

Antoniou GP, De Feo G, Fardin F, Tamburrino A, Khan S, Tie F, Reklaityte I, Kanetaki E, Zheng XY, Mays LW, Angelakis AN. “Evolution of Toilets Worldwide through the Millennia.” Sustainability. 2016; 8(8):779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080779

Koolhaas, Rem. “Elements of Architecture.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. Pages 34-51. 2014.

One Community. Most Sustainable Toilets: Research, Water-saving, and User Feedback.” One Community for the Highest Good of All. Dec, 2018. https://www.onecommunityglobal.org/most-sustainable-toilets/

Innovation and Mass Production of Toilets 1775-1895 [UPDATED]

Feb 1, 2021 | History, Industrial Revolution, innovation, Research, technology | 3 comments

Innovation and Mass Production of Toilets 1775-1895

Brandon Volpicelli

S-Trap by Alexander Cummings

The toilet has been rethought and redesigned since long before even the days of the Egyptians. There is evidence of this uncovered by archeologists and since then has evolved into a massive network that runs as a way to maintain a clean environment. According to Barksdale the original iteration of the modern toilet was developed by Sir John Harington in 1596 and was a “2-foot-deep oval bowl waterproofed with pitch, resin and wax and fed by water from an upstairs cistern. Flushing Harington’s pot required 7.5 gallons of water…”(Para. 3). An extremely high amount of water when clean water was scarce. This model was made for Queen Elizabeth I and proceeded to be used solely by the wealthy for nearly two centuries.

Rem Koolhaas lays out a series of events from 1775 to 1895 in consecutive order depicting the changes and the factors that led to the remodel of the water closet to the toilet. This evolution did not occur overnight and is still continually being improved upon in the modern day. Koolhaas’ work explains the necessity for innovation and even mass production of the toilet in the 16th and 17th centuries. (Koolhaas 34-51)

https://lavatoryreader.typepad.com/.a/6a0120a58872a6970b0120a7b6bea2970b-popup

Image 2: Joseph Bramah’s modification to Alexander Cummings’ design on the water closet.

The need for innovation was in part due to comfort of the user but mainly underlying safety and health issues. In 1775, Alexander Cummings had a patent created for the s-trap. A way to protect the sewer line gases from coming up through the drains. If water sits in this bend, it will provide an easy barrier that gases can not travel back up through. However, that innovation was not enough to counter the smell as there was a much larger problem. Almost immediately, the plumbing system needed to be innovated due to the minimal infrastructure in place to hold all of the waste due to a law in 1815 making it illegal to connect to the city sewers. As time continued problems began to worsen. (Koolhaas 34)

In 1778, Alexander Cummings’ model was modified by Joseph Bramah who was a cabinetmaker. Meanwhile, while slight modifications were being made to the water closet, there were other experiments of toilets at this time. Someone developed the earth closet which tried replacing water with dirt as a flushing method. Another was the pan closet which acted as a trap door that would drop the excrement into a cesspool below. You could say these ideas didn’t pan out. (Antoniou 42)

6a0120a58872a6970b0120a7b6bea2970b-800wi

https://lavatoryreader.typepad.com/.a/6a0120a58872a6970b0120a7b6bea2970b-popup

Image 2: Joseph Bramah’s modification to Alexander Cummings’ design on the water closet.

https://twitter.com/ThomasCrapperCo/status/661883118375202816/photo/1

Image 3: George Jennings’ Monkey Closet designed in 1851. First Use of porcelain and was unveiled in the Great Exhibition.

There was a great need for the mass production of toilets when a mass outbreak of cholera killed 14,000 people in 1848, people were required to have a water closet to dispose of their waste. In 1851 George Jennings developed the monkey closet which was a variation of the water closet however it had a different trap. The use of the Great Exhibition as an advertisement worked extremely well as nearly 1,500 of the 11,000 people there daily would use it. The next year Jennings created the flush toilet and it was widely attached to. Yes, mass production of this led to the 200,000 toilets sending feces to the Thames however that was dealt with by connecting to the sewers. (Koolhaas 34)

By the 1850’s there were over 200,000 toilets, and with the decommissioning of 30,000 cesspools the Thames was being overloaded by waste. This creates issues like the Great Stink which occurred when England had reached the highest recorded temperatures, and the Thames River was full of fecal matter from the toilet’s drainage. It created a nauseating stench for an entire summer in 1858. Then the following year, most toilets were attached to the sewer lines. The story behind the innovation of the toilet was due mainly to a problem arising and a need to combat it. This occurred and reoccurred until the problems were all overcome. (Koolhaas 36)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Stink#/media/File:The_silent_highwayman.jpg

Image 4: “The Silent Highwayman” An artistic representation of death coming for those due to the extreme condition of the Thames during the Great Stink.

https://bshm.org.uk/joseph-bazalgette-28-3-1819-15-3-1891/

Image 5: Joseph Bazalgette portrayed in a cartoon

As time passed in the 1870’s, it was a health requirement to have proper sanitation in people’s homes which kept homes cleaner and healthier. By introducing every home to have a toilet it lowered the probability of another disease outbreak from fecal matter, especially since they were not being directed into the river that the Londoners use for living. In 1883 there was such an abundance of toilets being used that Joseph Bazalgette developed 1,200 miles of sewer tunnels under London to allow for this influx of production. While mass production of the toilet seemingly created problems with the abundance of waste being directed it helped deplete more problems than it created. As sewers were grown to accommodate the influx of toilets, waste was no longer being kept close to the users and rather taken farther away, not just to a river nearby. (Koolhaas 38-42)

In 1884, Thomas Crapper manufactured a flushing toilet line, a similar model to the previous one however an added invention of his own, the ballcock. A floating valve that refills the tank before the next flush in an effort to decrease the amount of water used. This strategy is still used to this day in flush toilets. (Barksdale Para. 8)

https://www.agupdate.com/agriview/lifestyles/farmlife/one-of-the-first-thomas-crapper-toilet-designs/pdf_336630fd-7caa-5e49-aadb-8c9eff428855.html

Image 6: Thomas Crapper’s Flush Down Water Closet Basin with Ballcock

The innovation and mass production of the toilet turned it into what it is today and the advancements they are making today would never have been possible without the struggle and errors that occurred in the past.

Bibliography

Antoniou GP, De Feo G, Fardin F, Tamburrino A, Khan S, Tie F, Reklaityte I, Kanetaki E, Zheng XY, Mays LW, Angelakis AN. “Evolution of Toilets Worldwide through the Millennia.” Sustainability. 2016; 8(8):779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080779

Barksdale, Nate. “Who Invented the Flush Toilet?” History. May 2015, edited April 2020.

Koolhaas, Rem. “Elements of Architecture.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. Pages 34-51. 2014.