Thomas McMillian
Dr. Reis
Rel 424
Research Project
Canonization of the New Testament
The New Testament canon consists of twenty sevens books which were at one point agreed upon by a collective group. These books were recognized as the true teachings of Christianity. However the question is how and why were these twenty-seven books chosen and the others thrown out? The canon in the biblical sense is a collection of writings and scriptures that were divinely inspired by God for men. The canon’s main purpose was to centralize Christian teaching and worship behind one flagstaff collection of books. “A basic prerequisite for canonicity was conformity to what was called the rule of faith that is, the congruity of a given document with the basic human tradition recognized as normative by the Church. (Metzger 251). The only problem with the canon is which collection of these sacred texts is correct and who gets to decide what is correct? The New Testament was divided into three different stages. First and foremost there was the rise of the New Testament writings to the status of scripture, and then there was a conscious effort of groupings of the literature into a closed collection, and finally the formation of a closed canonical list of authoritative text that would be use by the church to teach wide spread Christianity. The New Testament is full of Christ centered documents. The New Testament mainly derives of the workings of God, Christ, and the apostles. Thanks to the Holy Spirit God could divinely inspire the New Testament. The earliest canon that the church had was Jesus himself. Jesus spoke on behalf of God.
For scripture in the New Testament to be viewed as canonical its mains influences had to come from either Jesus, the apostles, or the disciples. All of these men and women that had influence on the New Testament were well versed in the Old Testament. In the eyes of Constantine and his helpers the Old Testament prophets were equal to the New Testament apostles. The New Testament writers such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Paul, and Peter were all highly regarded by the church and the heretics. However heretical groups viewed their writings all in different ways.
“The formation of the New Testament was a process, extending over at least two centuries, in the course of which the oral teaching and preaching of Jesus and the apostles was recorded in written form and was circulated among the Christian churches, (2) was accepted by these churches in certain formulations and no in the others, (3) was regarded first as the key to the Old Testament, then as equal to it in authority, and (4) came to be regarded as inspired “scripture”. The process took place within the Christian communities during the period in which great clarity and precision were achieved in relation to doctrine, discipline, and worship.” (Campenhausen 181)
The NT scriptures had their origin in a story that gave identity, hope, and clarity to the early Christians. That story is bound to the early church’s belief in God’s activity in Jesus of Nazareth, whom the early Christians accepted as their promised messiah, who was raised from the dead, and who delivers them from their sins and offers them eternal life . Their faith in Jesus as the Lord lies at the heart of the origins of canon, namely a normative guide or authority, the earliest “canon” of the church was Jesus, that is , his life, teachings, and fate were all central to his followers and pivotal in their worship and mission. His story is what first gathered the Christian community together after his death and resurrection, and gave rise to its written traditions that were eventually identified as a fixed collection of Scriptures called the “New Testament”. (Abraham 539)
“The processes which have been sketched out indicate a slow but inexorable growth of the Christian Bible. At the beginning stood the Old Testament as primal canon. At the end of the first century Christians would have “proudly and without hesitation said yes to the question whether their community possessed a holy and binding book of divine revelation: the church possessed such books, the “law and prophets”, what is now called the Old Testament” Closely connected with this was the authority of the now present Lord Jesus, who in his words and in his Spirit spoke to the communities. To that was directly attached the authority of those in office, the Twelve, the apostles, the prophets.”( Lüdemann 205-206)
Many heretical groups stood against the modern canon that was produced due to these groups and people having what they believed were holy scriptures of their own. Groups and people such as Marcion, Tertullion, Ireneus, Gnostics, and the Montanists devised their own texts that they believe were inspired by the Holy Spirit. The problem with the influence by the Holy Spirit was that it would mean that the New Testament implies that God had a specific influence on the historical events in antiquity. God having influence changed the historical importance of the texts that were derived by Jesus, the disciples, and the apostles.
“Marcionism, Gnosticism, and the Montanists posed serious challenges to the larger church in the 2nd cent., and all three so called heresies produced literature that supported their theological positions. Marcion edited the Gospel of Luke and the letters of Paul for his own advantage, but did not produce a closed canon of Scriptures. The Gnostics produced large amounts of literature that challenged the common views of the church on the humanity of Jesus, and they reserved the highest levels of salvation to those who had acquitted a special esoteric knowledge of the will and plan of God. Many of them welcomed many parts of the OT and NT Scriptures, but they also produced other literature that the church later condemned as heretical. The Montanists, on the other hand, where a charismatic community that emphasized the presence of continuing prophesy in their community, much of which was written down but evidently later destroyed. None of their writings survive. They did not produce a fixed collection of Christian Scriptures, however, and the greater church did not respond to their literary activity by producing one. (Sakenfeld 542-543)
The Gnostics flourished for over four centuries. Their main beliefs consisted of the importance of one’s soul over the body, that their physical bodies as a result of a catastrophe imprisoned their souls and the only way to obtain salvation is by means of special knowledge. Gnosis meaning knowledge was their main way of worship. The Gnostics believed that the world did not come from a demiurge and they also rejected the Old Testament as a whole. They also made it a point to establish Jesus of Nazareth as different from the rest of the world. The Gnostics posed a major threat to the church and a central teaching. The church would counter the Gnostics and their teachings by simply stating that their teachings could be found nowhere within the four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, or in the epistles of Paul. The Gnostics of course would counter the church asserting that the truth had simply not been revealed to the non-believers. Their main teachings against the church established that they had a special knowledge that everyone else didn’t. Valentinus was their most known follower. Valentinus was the author of “The Gospel of Truth”.
Irenaeus was another man that influenced the New Testament canon and its formation. He was a man who was born in 142 (CE??). He was a man who grew up in the church and he was well versed in the teachings of the Bible. “Irenaus’ theology is that of a churchman. He wages his war on the heretics on the one hand to defend the Creator God and on the other to protect the simple Christians of the church.” (Lüdemann 16). Irenaeus’ theology differed from other heretics. First Irenaeus believed that God was the creator of heaven and earth. Second he believed that in Christ alone creation and heaven are guaranteed. Finally Ireneaus believed that the scriptures and the teachings of the apostles as the rule of truth.
Tertullian was a presbyter in Carthage. He had many differing ideas of the church and how the canon should be formulated and distributed. His problems with the church were that he felt that Rome was pre-programmed.
The Church decided that the heretics that taught against the New Testament could not be called Christians. They couldn’t be called Christians due to their inability to conform to the ways of the church.
“A heretic, Marcion provided the decisive stimulus towards the New Testament. When he canonized the letters of Paul alongside the Gospel of Luke, he formally compelled the church to give them a canonical status- or wholly to reject them. That is all the more amazing, since the theology of the church, which canonized the letters of Paul, was utterly un-Pauline. So it is extremely ironical that Paul in particular occupied the greatest place in the new canon and that all the others letters came into the New Testament in the wake of this heretic.” (Lüdemann 205-206)
Montanists were a heretical group that emphasized an ascetic lifestyle. They encouraged both men and women to become preachers and leaders of their church. They went against the mainstream church by claiming that the Holy Spirit divinely inspired their scriptural texts. Their most well-known leader was Tertullian. Montanists emphasized the death of martyrs and praised them for their heroism and conviction for their cause. This specific group rose to power and popularity at around 170 CE. Montanists would write down verses that they would come to them in holy visions that they claimed were given to them by the holy spirit. This is where the church had to draw the line, the church didn’t believe that their scriptures were divinely inspired, had any bearing on the synoptic gospels, and finally their writings had nothing to do with the apostles and disciples. The Montanists were one of the main reasons for church leading to a canonization of a New Testament. Constantine was the Roman emperor around the time in which the Bible was being canonized. He was a man who believed in Christianity but it has always been question how much he actually believed in God and Christianity. He underwent a baptism many years after the first Council of Nicea. He was one of the leading forces behind a unified and uniform New Testament. Constantine hosted the Council of Nicea. Church leaders were called to gather in Nicea to determine which books and scriptures would be used in a unified canon. They had to choose a unified and formal canon due to the confusion that it caused. “Here individuals and groups are struggling over the right understanding of the tradition which has been handed down, over Jesus and Paul; they are asking abut what is true and false, good and evil, but above all they have a desire for security in faith and are exposed to every possible misunderstanding inside and outside. IT is all this that makes the New Testament writings and the history of the canon so attractive even or people today.” (Lüdemann 207)The Council of Nicea also help set in stone a unification of answers that plagued heretical groups and regular followers of Christ on a daily basis. The council answered the questions of God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, how Jesus was begotten, and most importantly the Council unified the New Testament to have one centralized teaching for all the followers of Christ. First and foremost Jesus was to be viewed as the center of all Christian tradition. Also the steeple of Christianity would have to be the resurrection because Paul wrote in his letters that if the resurrection is false than Christianity is a failed religion. The only question that remained was how were they going to do it and what criteria did scriptures and other texts have to fit to be viewed as canonical? The criterion of the canon was very important and caused much debate. Mainly to be viewed as a canonical book of the Bible there had to be a heavy influence on Jesus, the disciples, and the apostles. One of those writers had to have had influence on the writings for it to be considered holy. The Council of Nicea was important due to the fact that the east and the west both had different beliefs, bibles, sacred practices, and writings which influenced the way their worshipped God. The Council of Nicea also had to deal with the problem of historical vs. religious authority in determining which scriptures were correct and useable. Sola Scriptura was also cause for debate. Sola Scriptura in Latin means “Scripture Alone”, faith and belief in scripture alone
The canonization of the New Testament would prove to be a never-ending task. Heretics lead to the canonization of the New Testament. Many heretical groups went against the church. Such groups and people include Marcion, Tertullien, Gnostics, and the Montanists. All of these groups taught different versions of Christianity. They all had different ideals and sacred texts in which different versions of the same religion were created. The leader of the unification of the New Testament was spear headed by Emperor Constantine. Emperor Constantine was a questionable Christian at best, however he did seek to unify Christians and create a widely accepted canon. At the Council of Nicea the bishops which were under the control of Constantine answered the questions of Christ, God, and the Holy Spirit. An oath was also created for all Christians called the Nicean Creed. Constantine helped unify the church and establish the New Testament we know today.
Annotated Bibliography:
Medieval Monasticism
Lawrence C. H. Medieval Monasticism. New York: Longman, n.d. Print.
This source is going to be used to evaluate the Monasticism heretical movement and the effects it had on the canonization of the New Testament. More specifically this source analyses the Monastic view point of the apostles and how it effects their beliefs and how they observed and adopted their beliefs and made their writings into their own canon.
Books and Readings in the Early Churches
Gamble, Harry Y. Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts. New Haven: Yale UP, 1995. Print.
This source helped spell out the atmosphere of the early Christian church. This also help set the scene for life surrounding heretics and the publication of the early Christian literature.
Heretics
Wright, Jonathan. Heretics: The Creation of Christianity from the Gnostics to the Modern Church. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. Print.
This source will help define the creation of the New Testament Canon from a gnostic point of view. The Gnostics was a early Christian heretical movement that wanted to disregard the material world. They valued knowledge, truth, and the spiritual realm over all else. The Proto-Orthodox Church dubbed the a heretical group due to the fact that they changed the “set” gospels to fit their own agenda. This source helps identify the reasons for why they changed the gospels and what they want to emphasize in their beliefs.
Canon and Criterion in Christian Theology
Abraham, William J. Canon and Criterion in Christian Theology: From the Fathers to Feminism. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998. Print.
This source helps identify the scriptures and creeds used by the early roman catholic church to help spread their religion through the medieval period. This source emphasizes the use of Sola Scriptura “Scripture Alone” and its influence on the canonization of the New Testament. Sola Scriptura was a viewpoint that held that idea that widespread salvation could be achieved through the use of scripture and only scripture. This source also analyzes the Rule of Reason. Along with the belief and understanding of Sola Scriptura the Rule of Reason helped shape the way of life for many early heretics.
Which Books Belong in the Bible?
Filson, Floyd V. Which Books Belong in the Bible? A Study of the Canon. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1957. Print.
This source helps analyze and dive into the questions that plaugued many heretical groups. Which books belong in the New Testament canon and why do they belong there? What is is the criteria for a book to be viewed as canonical and true and who has the privilege and earthly authority to determine the authenticity and accuracy of canonical books. This source helps answer why people needed to study the canon, and why it is important to know the difference between the Roman Catholic “true” and “false” books. In other words this source helps explain why the Roman Catholic church chose the books that they did and how they were able to obtain such power to make such decisions.
The New Testament as Canon
Childs, Brevard S. The New Testament as Canon: An Introduction. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985. Print.
This source helped establish the differences between Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John along with the workings of the apostles and disciples. The works of the disciples were viewed to have great theological and literary meaning to early Christians. This source also helped show the problems that were faced with creating a canon
Canons in Conflict
Brenneman, James E. Canons in Conflict: Negotiating Texts in True and False Prophecy. New York: Oxford UP, 1997. Print.
This source helps identify the processes in which the canon undertook to be accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. This source goes into extreme detail about the truths and falsities of the prophets, sacred texts, church leaders, and heretics. This source uses different Bibles to help cross reference different biblical scriptures to determine whether they all coincide with each other or not. This source also identifies the problems of heretical canons and why they weren’t accepted into the Bible we know today. Finally this source goes into the power that the Roman Catholic church and the biblical canon had over the people in the medieval age and in current times.
The Biblical Canon
McDonald, Lee Martin, and Lee Martin McDonald. The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2007. Print.
This source is a very good opening source to use in the early stages and development of my paper when forming my argument for the canonization of the new testament texts. This source helps identify what the New Testament Canon currently is and why it was so widely accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. This source shows the transition between the writings of the new testament prophets to the writings being accepted as sacred texts. The early stages of the canon were very important because people needed to know what were the correct books of the bible and why were they right. This delves into the writings of Paul and other early new testament writers and identifies the language that they used along with the community that surrounded them. Ultimately this source also touches on he authority that the early church obtained and it also explains why the early church was able to rise to power and tell people what they could and could not believe in order to be saved.
The Canon Debate
McDonald, Lee Martin, and James A. Sanders. The Canon Debate. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2002. Print.
The Canon debate is another source that I will use early on in my research paper to help identify the canon by definition, the differences between the Hebrew and the New Testament Christian canon. This source also touches briefly on certain heretical groups and what they believed were the right scriptures and what they believed were the wrong scripture that didn’t belong in the canon. The Apocrypha and Psudepigrapha is also analyzed due to the fact that these two topics were essential to any biblical canon. The most important part of this source is the topic the process of actually closing off the canonical process and moving towards a more unified text. This source goes into detail about Marcion, Gnosticism in relation to the Christian Bible, Eusebius, and the canonical structure of the Gospels and Apostles.
The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon
McDonald, Lee M. The Formation of the Christian Bible. N.p.: Hendrickson, n.d. 1995
This source helps identify why the formation of the canonical gospel. But mainly this source will deal with the heretical groups the Montanists, Irenaeus, and the Gnostics. These groups went taught that the Roman Catholic church was evil and each group adopted their own canon to suit their own purposes. The Montanists lived a pious lifetstyle, rejected the church, and the believed in the second coming of Jesus Christ would come rather sooner than later. Irenaeus was a bishop who is most famous for going against the gnostic way of thinking. He lead a heretical group that changed and shaped the canonical gospel to fit his ideals. Gnostics believed in knowledge above all else. The gnostic heretical group and Iraneus were pitted against each other and both groups released documents damning and demonizing each other. This source will help not only point out each heresy and what they stand for but it also goes into immense detail of each groups sacred texts and why they believed the Church was wrong
The Canon of the New Testament
Metzger, Bruce M. The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford: Clarendon, 1987. Print.
This source helps identify the apolisitc fathers who influenced the formation and the development of the biblical canon. Heretical groups who went against the church produced their own canon and this source helps identify the influences that led them to their choice in scripture, religious practices, and sacred texts. This source also helps identify the motives of the Catholic Church to create a singular canonical doctrine. This source identifies the purposes of near all the heretical groups of the era. Gnostics, Marcion, and Montanism. This source attempts to establish the reasons for the opening, development, and the closing of the gospel. I’m particularly interested in using this source because the tail end of this source talks about the use of the canon today. This source analyzes the use of the canon in the medieval era along with the use of the canon in today’s time.
The Formation on the Christian Bible
Campenhausen, Hans Von. The Formation of the Christian Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1972. Print.
The Formation on the Christian Bible is a source that takes into a count Jesus, ancient law that pertains to the canon, and the gospel tradition that was accepted by the early Christians and that was used by the Roman Catholic Church to spread their canon internationally. This source also uses the pre history of the New Testament canon, which looks at the life and times before the use of a biblical canon along with the formation of the canon. This source also analyzes the emergence of a New Testament doctrine along with defining the limitations of a New Testament canon. The defining is probably the most important asset that I could use in my paper because this section in the book will give me details that will help me strengthen my thesis. The limits of the New Testament plays an important role against heresy because this unifies the early beginnings of the church. Heretics in time will use this doctoral canon and change it to fit their own needs and to further their own needs.
New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible
Sakenfeld, Katharine Doob. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2010. Print.
This source gave me a great deal of background in the forming of the New Testament Canon. This source spoke about Constantine and the Council of Nicea. Constantine was an early Christian who’s faith was questioned until he was baptized. This source also gave insight to the Old Testament as well.
Heretics
Lüdemann, Gerd. Heretics: The Other Side of Early Christianity. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996. Print.
This source explained every single heretical group and their beliefs. It explained its stance on Christianity, their sacred texts, and why they went against the church. Heretics helped explain each major heretic along with the group that they were apart of. This source was irreplaceable in my research.
Constantine’s Bible
Dungan, David L. Constantine’s Bible: Politics and the Making of the New Testament. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007. Print.
Constantine’s bible showed what kind of man emperor Constantine was. He helped form the first council of Nicea and was in charge of the bishops which unified the New Testament writings. Constantine was a very questionable Christian due to the fact that he was a very recent convert to Christianity and was baptized years after the first council of Nicea.