The Cult of Zeus Olympios of Olympia

Ancient Greek mythology is typified by a pantheon of gods and goddesses, all with a specific role in the ruling of the cosmos. While none of these deities possessed the all-encompassing powers held by Isis or Yahweh, the closest comparison is drawn by an examination of the god Zeus. Of all of the gods and goddesses worshiped in ancient Greece, it is Zeus who has lasted the test of time and has remained a recognizable and revered religious figure in Western and Eastern cultures alike. Zeus was viewed as the father of gods and men, the personification of authority and order who won his position through difficult trials and tribulations. In some ways, it was the responsibilities held by Zeus in the pantheon that paved the way for the flourishing of monotheistic traditions in the Mediterranean region. It was in his honor that the Olympiad games were held, and it was a temple dedicated to him in Olympia that has remained a famed example of religious life for ancient Greeks. This essay will examine the stories and traditions surrounding Zeus, the cult worship of Zeus Olympios, Olympia, the Olympiad games, and the lasting impact that the god Zeus has made on cultures near and far. Through an examination of these topics light can be shed on both the history of the Greek civilization as well as the development of its religious traditions and beliefs.

Olympia

As the largest and most intricate dedication to Zeus as well as the largest festival dedicated to Zeus were placed in the religious sanctuary of Olympia, it is useful for the purposes of this essay to use an examination of this location as a starting point to understanding the overall cult worship of Zeus. The name Olympia was derived from Mount Olympos, which was both a vital geographical site as well as the home of the pantheon of Greek gods. According to tradition, Zeus served as the ultimate authority amongst the gods and thus was the ruler of the majestic Mount Olympos [3].  While Olympia would have been a sprawling urban environment, it was not considered a city-state in its own right. As previously mentioned, Olympia operated as a religious sanctuary and was provided priests and other religious officials by the nearby city-state Elis that controlled its affairs. Olympia was also located in a strategically important area of the Peloponnese, as it was on a level open area that was easily accessible to the villages in the surrounding mountains. Furthermore, it was used as a way to find the ever-important Ionian Sea. These are some of the reasons why the famed athletic competitions known as the Olympiad Games were held at this location. As scholars view these competitions to be one of the first verifiable organized sporting events, Olympia is considered to be one of the most important archeological sites in the world. Examination of the temples, alters, shrines, and sporting venues shed light on how ancient Greeks experienced their religious traditions.

The Olympic Games

The Olympic games are one of the few traditions that have endured the test of time, and to this day the games are considered an integral aspect of a globally connected human civilization. In the same way, although on a smaller scale, the Olympic games were a unifying festival that was widely celebrated by Greeks and non-Greeks alike. While there is little doubt that the Olympic games were massively important for the Greek people, there is some disagreement regarding the beginning of the games. According to Pausanias, the inaugural games were held in 776 B.C.E and continued until 393 C.E. During this 1,169-year period there would have been 293 Olympiads held in Olympia. However, the available archaeological record maintains that evidence shows there were games held as early as 700 B.C.E [4].

The fact that the games were able to peacefully exist for as long as they did deserves attention and explanation as well. During the 7^th and 8^th century B.C.E. the Peloponnese was characterized by sprawling city-states that were constantly at war with each other over boundaries and resources. Secular leaders in the area understood that this violence would ultimately lead to the demise of the entire region, and wisely placed a cessation of hostilities under the protection of the sanctuary at Olympia under the advice of the Oracle of Olympia. The institution of the games happened at the same time as the establishment of a sacred truce between Iphitos, the King of Pisa, Cleosthenes, and the Spartan lawgiver Lykourgos [7]. This truce held that all hostilities between parties would cease during each Olympiad and that Olympia should be a place of peace, with protection provided for travelers going to and from the games. The overtly militaristic qualities of the people of these city-states helps to explain why many of the early dedications to Zeus were statues of Nike, the god of victory, which were placed there for militaristic rather than athletic purposes [8]. It was in Zeus’ honor that the Olympic games and festival at Olympia were held, and his various epithets were all out in force to ensure a smooth operating of the games. For example, before the games began Zeus Apomyios (Averter of Flies) was called upon to rid the games of the pests [4].

 

The Classical Period

While Zeus was undoubtedly a popular god for the Greek people, it was not until the Persian Wars that the Greek civilization as well as the worship of Zeus began to flourish. The main reason that the worship of Zeus -especially Zeus Olympios- began to expand and develop is a result of the spoils of war gathered from captured Persian naval vessels and other troops [7]. This factor, combined with the dedications to Zeus Olympios as a result of the successful campaign allowed for enormous growth in the cult worship of Zeus in Olympia. As stated previously, many of these early dedications strictly depicted Zeus in a militaristic sense, and as his cult worship developed his dedications became more diverse. The epithet of Zeus Olympios reflects this diversity, as he became the god who decided not only the victor in military campaigns, but also athletic competitions and political strafes. Zeus Olympios was the godly personification of authority and order, and it was believed that through him all power struggles were decided [6].

The Temple of Zeus Olympios

One of the best clues archaeologists and scholars have regarding the worship of Zeus in Olympia is the large temple structure dedicated to him after the Olympiad of 476 B.C.E. It is thought that before the construction of this temple, Zeus Olympios was likely worshiped at his open-air altar. This 20 meter high temple was financed by the Eleians and the income of the sanctuary itself, and was completed by the Eleian architect Libon in the year 457 B.C.E. The Main building was divided into a pronaeos (front porch), cella (central chamber), and opisthodomos (back room), and enclosed by a colonnade of 6 by 13 columns that were built with grey poros (local limestone) [1].

The depictions on the East and West Pediments are true representations of Zeus Olympios’ role as a judge or arbiter for gods and humans alike. The West Pediment depicts a battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs. According to legend, The King of the Lapiths Perithoos invited the Centaurs to his wedding. The Centaurs had too much to drink and began attacking the women of the Lapiths. The Lapiths, who represented rule and order, emerged victorious over the Centaurs, who represented chaos and evil. In the depiction on the West Pediment Zeus is placed in the center as to signify his judgment of the situation. Similarly, Zeus is placed in the center of the East Pediment as well. On this pediment, a depiction of the chariot race between Oinomaos and Pelops is displayed. The scene was the moment during the preparations for the race, and Zeus is set to judge the competition [5].

While the intricate nature of the depictions on the Eastern and Western Pediment are quite impressive, they can do little to compare to the massive statue of Zeus that would have been placed inside the temple. This statue was completed by the Athenian sculptor Pheidas, and was made of gold (chrysos) and ivory (elephas)[2]. Zeus is seated in his throne with a statue of Nike in his right hand, and a scepter adorned with an eagle in his left. The scepter was a symbol of his rule as king of the gods, and the eagle was the bird held most sacred to him. The regal nature of his depiction in the temple signifies that shift away from a purely militaristic Zeus into one that was seen as more of a king or a grand judge [3]. Unfortunately, the statue was moved to Constantinople and destroyed in a fire in 475 C.E.

 

 

Cultural Impact of Zeus

According to the playwright Auschlus, “Zeus is air, Zeus is earth, Zeus is the sky, Zeus is everything, and whatever exists superior to it”. The vast powers and responsibilities given to Zeus likely made the cult worship of figures such as Isis and Yahweh easier to comprehend for the peoples of the ancient Mediterranean.  Beyond the theological implications of Zeus’ nearly all-encompassing abilities, his likeness was quite popular. When the Romans first encountered the god, they were so impressed that they used his image for their own heavenly god, Jupiter Optimus Maximus [2]. Furthermore, when the Christian movement began to pick up steam and required iconography for those unable to read, they used the same image to depict God the Father. This is why often times all three deities are depicted as older males with long beards.

Other than the lasting religious legacy that Zeus has left on Western religions, he is often the sole Greek deity that an average individual has any amount of knowledge about. For many people, his powerful and regal nature serves as a way of remembering the Greek civilization as a whole. While surely there was a plethora of important gods and goddesses to an average Greek citizen, it is the almighty Zeus that has stood the test of time.

 

 

 

Notes

1. 1.     Ashmole, Bernard, and Nikolaos Yalouris. Olympia: The Sculptures of the Temple of Zeus. (London: Phaidon, 1967.) 17-22, 30.
2. 2.     Dowden, Ken. Zeus. (London: Routledge, 2006.) 67, 22-25, 119.
3. 3.     Lloyd-Jones, Hugh. The Justice of Zeus. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.)
4. 4.     Mikalson, Jon D. Ancient Greek Religion. (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2005.) 102-118.
5. 5.     Saflund, Marie-Louise. The East Pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia – A Reconstruction and Interpretation of Its Composition. Goteborg, Sweden: P. Åström, (Södra v. 61, 1970.) 97-131.
6. 6.     Sommerstein, Alan H. The Tangled Ways of Zeus: And Other Studies in and around Greek Tragedy. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.) 164-171.
7. 7.     Valavanis, Panos. “Olympia and the Olympic Games.” In Games and Sanctuaries in Ancient Greece: Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, Athens. (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004.) 21-111.
8. 8.     Warrior, Valerie M. “Competitions in Honor of the Gods.” In Greek Religion: A Sourcebook, (Newburyport (MA): Focus, 2009.) 136-143.

 

 

 

Annotated Bibliography

 

1. 1.     Ashmole, Bernard, and Nikolaos Yalouris. Olympia: The Sculptures of the Temple of Zeus. (London: Phaidon, 1967.) 17-22, 30.

In an attempt to piece together many of the mysteries surrounding the temple of Zeus at Olympia, Emeritus Professor of Classical Archaeology & Art in the University of Oxford, Bernard Ashmole, joined forces with Dr. Nicholas Yalouris who was the Ephor of Antiquities the Western Peloponnesus, who was in charge of the museum at Olympia. This book provides a simple, fully illustrated account of the sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. It is meant to be an introduction for students and for many others who are interested in them. Dr. Yalouris and Mr. Ashmole’s publication was useful in examining the symbolism behind the sculptures on the Eastern and Western Pediment of the Temple of Zeus in Olympia.

1. 2.     Dowden, Ken. Zeus. (London: Routledge, 2006.) 67, 22-25, 119.

 

Zeus provides a thorough and accessible, as well as scholarly, introduction to the chief god in the Greek pantheon. Ken Dowden, Professor of Classics, and Director of the Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity at the University of Birmingham, attempts in his book to complete a comprehensive examination of the Greek god. Dowden devotes several chapters to how Zeus has been received by the Romans, as well as during medieval and modern times. Dowden’s book was especially helpful in the pages he devoted to the Chryselephantine Statue of Zeus found in the temple at Olympia.

 

1. 3.     Lloyd-Jones, Hugh. The Justice of Zeus. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.)

This book contains the text of six lectures Lloyd-Jones delivered at University of California, Berkley, during the fall term of 1969. Lloyd-Jones devotes the majority of the book to the Greek concept Dike, which can mean “justice” but also refers to the divinely appointed order of the universe. This book was a valuable asset in understanding how Zeus played a role not only in the lives of the gods, but also how Greeks viewed Zeus as a force for justice in their lives as well. Lloyd-Justice uses a thorough examination of Zeus’ role in the Iliad and Odyssey to pursue this goal.

1. 4.     Mikalson, Jon D. Ancient Greek Religion. (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2005.) 102-118.

Ancient Greek Religion offers an introductory and comprehensive examination of the Greek polytheistic religious system, and more importantly how the Greeks understood this religion in the course of their day-to-day lives. Mikalson’s served as one of the foundations of my research into the Zeus Olympios cult, and did a remarkable job illustrating the reality of what an Olympic festival would have been like in ancient Greece.

1. 5.     Saflund, Marie-Louise. The East Pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia – A Reconstruction and Interpretation of Its Composition. Goteborg, Sweden: P. Åström, (Södra v. 61, 1970.) 97-131.

This text is the result of the work between the Greek government and the Imperial government of Germany in the late 19^th century. Author Marie-Louise Salfund offers an in depth analysis of the Eastern Pediment at the Temple of Zeus in Olympia. Most interestingly, Salfund comprised a long series of alternative explanations and arrangements of the sculptures that comprised the Eastern Pediment, and also offered a lengthy additional examination of the mythology and history surrounding each character depicted in the pediment. Her work was most useful when examining the cult worship characteristics of Zeus Olympios.

1. 6.     Sommerstein, Alan H. The Tangled Ways of Zeus: And Other Studies in and around Greek Tragedy. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.) 164-171.

 

In his book, The Tangled Ways of Zeus, Alan H. Sommerstein comprises a collection of studies written over the last twenty years, namely those dealing with tragedy in Greek oral and written tradition. Each chapter has a different genre, and the chapter titled, “The tangled ways of Zeus”, was helpful in identifying the morality that ancient Greeks held Zeus to.

 

1. 7.     Valavanis, Panos. “Olympia and the Olympic Games.” In Games and Sanctuaries in Ancient Greece: Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, Athens. (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004.) 21-111.

In his title, Games and Sanctuaries in Ancient Greece, the professor extraordinarius in classical archaeology at the University of Athens, Panos Valavanis examines how athletic competitions played a role in ancient Greek religious traditions. His chapter, “Olympia and the Olympic Games”, served as an essential bedrock in researching the religious traditions surrounding Zeus and his cult worship at Olympia.

1. 8.     Warrior, Valerie M. “Competitions in Honor of the Gods.” In Greek Religion: A Sourcebook, (Newburyport (MA): Focus, 2009.) 136-143.

Greek Religion: A Sourcebook offers a valuable array of primary sources that relate to Greek religious traditions, often citing philosophers and historians that shed light on how an ordinary Greek individual might have treated religion in their daily life. Warrior offers helpful explanations before each section in plain English, as to minimize the difficulties of reading ancient translations. Her sections on the Olympic games in the chapter, “Competitions in Honor of the Gods”, provided detailed, and often gritty, examples of what an Olympic festival would have been like for an ancient Greek. Her sections were another key element in the foundation of research into the Zeus Olympios cult worship.