In reading chapter three of Scripting Jesus, White sets up this idea of wisdom otherwise known as the personified woman, Sophia, or its male counterpart, Logos. This is an important introduction to the Heraclitus, Cicero, Cleanthes and Xenophon texts which each illuminate their philosophy behind their own interpretation of wisdom, virtue, and reason. First, we must recognize that White primarily emphasizes Sophia in the book of Luke, and both Sophia as well as logos in the view of Philo. Second, it is vital to be aware that each philosophy, regardless of contextual background, had its own twist on what reason looked like. Although there are different twists, there is an overarching theme of a higher wisdom or understanding apart from what mere humans can fathom.

Beginning with Heraclitus and Cicero, we see a shift of the divine. This shift is contrary to what the average human would like to admit: that logos can be known by the divinity alone. Heraclitus hits this perspective on the head by comparing human opinion to “children’s play” and referring to people as deceived, using Homer as an example. In this work it is clear that humans cannot understand logos. Reason is considered by Heraclitus as something that “humans always prove unable to understand” (10.1). We can thus deduce that the divinity alone understands logos while humans fail to fully grasp it. Cicero goes even further as to rationalize the existence of gods due to the fact that humans portray only a small fraction of perfection and that perfection in its entirety is held by gods. Within his texts, logos in hypothesized to be in several different entities such as gods or even the world being the ultimate god. However, Cicero concludes that there must be gods whom are governing the world and all that is in it. This displays the on-going idea of polytheism, the belief in many gods, but also illustrates a shifting idea that gods have control over the world with this divine understanding. This impedes on the idea that humans can harness logos due to the idea that divinities hold all reason, that of which they use to council the world.

Divine power is thus seen as holding all reason, but how can that be further described? Cleanthes gives us insight of his perspective in Hymn to Zeus. The hymn describes Zeus (a metaphor for God) as omnipotent, mover of nature, the father of mortal creatures, and the one whom permits all that happens on earth and heaven alike. In addition, Zeus is portrayed as a being in which man should partner with in order to live a good life with intelligence. Therefore, God is portrayed as sovereign: all-knowing and all-powerful. Cleanthes recommends praising the sovereign God because he has created us as his offspring and life with him leads to intelligence or logos. Reverting back to the idea of logos, based on this poem, we see that a view of understanding is that it can in a sense be harnessed by humans but not without the ordination of it by God.

Lastly, we look at Xenophon’s text called Memorabilia. This work personifies both vice and virtue as women. White gives us a summarized version of this story in chapter 2 of Scripting Jesus so we have already had some insight into what Heracles chooses and why. However, Xenophon goes further into the matter, not only elaborating on the story but in doing so explains what is pleasing to the gods. Through conflict between the women, it is revealed that virtue is more important to the gods. The character virtue gives a few reasons as to why. First off, what is the reward in being handed everything without need? There is no reward, there is simply endless amount of compulsion. Second, where is honor without work? Virtue argues that there is no honor without first working for it. Through the struggle the honor is rewarded and also well-deserved. Lastly, the gods cast out vice because they find favor with virtue instead. In explaining why virtue is better over vice, we are revealed what part human plays with the gods in the eyes of Xenophon. Human must struggle and labor for virtue since the gods reward this kind of behavior whereas they detest those whom do not work for good things.

Throughout these several sources we see different interpretations, expectations, and perceptions of gods and God. I would argue that there are two major similarities through these texts: 1) God and man are in some kind of relationship, and 2) God has some form of higher understanding (logos) than mankind. Although these relationships differ and the amount of knowledge the gods or God harnesses may differ, the idea of a higher being somehow governing the world through relationship with man is evident throughout.