By Elia Bartlett

Eutrophication is the process of a body of water being overwhelmed with minerals and nutrients– specifically nitrogen and phosphorus. This can be caused by fossil fuel emissions such as road traffic, shipping, and power stations, as well as discharge from agriculture and sewage treatment plants.

When the nutrient levels in a marine ecosystem climb above the average, more plant life– specifically algae– and plankton can thrive. If left unmanaged, algae blooms can quickly take over a system and consume much of the oxygen present in the water. In an excess of nutrients they will do just that, and as they continue to grow, they will reduce water quality and limit the amount of sunlight that can reach the ecosystem. As they photosynthesize, they can raise the pH of the water, and when the blooms die their decomposition will continue to consume oxygen. These algae and phytoplankton blooms can easily overwhelm the rest of the system, upsetting the balance, and the other species in the system suffer as a result.

Phytoplankton blooms on the surface of the Baltic Sea, creating the largest “dead zone” in the world.

The Baltic Sea suffers from eutrophication, and has been demonstrating long-term trends in decreasing oxygen concentration since the 1960’s. Reports of fish mortality due to oxygen deficiency began in the 1980’s. In order to slow this process, Sweden must reduce the actions causing the nitrogen and phosphorus emissions. They, along with many other European countries, are a part of the Baltic Sea Action Plan, to protect the health and biodiversity of the Baltic Sea. This includes combating eutrophication and striving for clear waters and natural levels of nutrients, oxygen, and algae. The nutrient input reduction scheme was introduced to track and restrict the nutrient levels being emitted by each country, and it uses maximum allowable inputs of nutrients to dictate how much can be added to the water in order to keep it at a stable level. Sweden, along with the rest of Northern Europe, is still working to combat the changes occurring in the Baltic Sea.

Sources:

Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems | Learn Science at Scitable

Marine Eutrophication Case Studies in Sweden

Zero Eutrophication

Nutrient input reduction scheme – HELCOM

By Elia Bartlett

Humanitarian law is an international set of rules with the goal of limiting the effects of armed conflicts. Most nations in the world are bound by it in some way, and much of it is included in four Geneva Conventions from 1949. According to the International Committee of the Red Cross, it covers “the protection of those who are not, or no longer, taking part in fighting,” and “restrictions on the means of warfare – in particular weapons – and the methods of warfare, such as military tactics.”

Sweden has reported on their development of humanitarian law since the addition of two protocols to the Geneva Convention in 1974-77. Specific articles were added to protect the wounded, medical vehicles and personnel, women and children, personnel in relief action, and more. In 2021, they launched the Guidance Document for Armed Forces on the Protection of Health Care in Armed Conflict, which had the goal of protecting healthcare and respecting humanitarian law while still carrying out military operations.

In Sweden’s 2022 report on human rights, it was noted that there had been a lack of COVID-19 regulations in the prison system, causing people who were already higher risk than average to be exposed to it. However many other aspects of the report were positive– Swedish law provides for the granting of asylum for refugees, freedom of expression, speech, and religion, and access to reproductive healthcare, as well as criminalizes government corruption and prohibits discrimination, violence, and hate crimes.

Swedish Foreign Minister Tobias Billström speaks at the Foreign Ministers’ Conference on European Union Enlargement and Reform.

Despide Sweden’s current efforts to further humanitarian law, they have a history with genocide. In 1915, Armenian people were killed by Ottoman forces during World War I, and in 2010 Sweden recognized this event as the Armenian genocide. This sparked conflict between Sweden and Turkey, who condemned the decision. Turkey withdrew their ambassador from Sweden, saying they rejected the decision due to “major errors” and the fact that it was “without foundation.”

Sources:

https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdfhttps://www.un.org/en/ga/sixth/77/protocols/sweden_e.pdfhttps://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2010-03-16/sweden-parliament-approves-resolution-on-armenian-genocide/

By Elia Bartlett

Sweden is a part of several global organizations, including the United Nations, and more recently, NATO.

As a part of the UN, Sweden works to fight poverty, promote sustainable development, and combat climate change. It is also strengthening international law and promoting human rights and gender equality issues. In the 2017-2018 term, it was a member of the UN Security Council, and made moves towards furthering prevention of armed conflict, cooperating within the UN Security Council, and much more. Sweden pushed for respect for humanitarian law in Syria, and protection of the humanitarian relief efforts happening there. In its time on the Security Council, Sweden also worked with the UN’s peacekeeping, focusing on a peaceful transfer of power in the Gambia in 2017.

Sweden has taken steps towards joining NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, in these past few days. Sweden has been trying to join NATO but has not yet gotten the endorsement from Turkey. All countries must agree in order for another to join, and Turkey had been refusing to allow Sweden to join because they disagreed with their leniency with militant groups. Turkey also believed that Sweden was harboring members of a group that Turkey saw as terrorists. After working more closely with Sweden and seeing them strengthen their anti-terror legislation, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has agreed to sign off on Sweden’s entry into NATO. 

Turkish president and Swedish Prime Minister shake hands at a NATO Summit.

However, on October 24th Sweden’s entry was denied once more– by Hungary. Hungary has a close alliance with Turkey, and Foreign Minister Peter Szijjarto has said, “If there is movement (in Turkey’s position), then of course we will keep our promise that Hungary will not delay any country in its accession.” With Turkey’s change of position it can be predicted that Hungary will follow soon. The next vote on Sweden’s accession will be on November 6th.

Sources:

Sweden closer to NATO membership after Erdogan sends accession protocol to Turkish parliament

Sweden and the UN

Hungary in the spotlight after Turkey presses on with Sweden’s bid to join NATO